WELCOME TO IRISH HISTORY ONLINE

Friday, October 30, 2009

Irish History Online is an authoritative guide (in progress) to what has been written about Irish history from earliest times to the present. It was established in association with the Royal Historical Society Bibliography of British and Irish History (of which it is now the Irish component) and London's Past Online.

Since the most recent update (December 2008) IHO contains some 66,000 items, drawn mostly from Writings on Irish History, and covering publications from 1936 to 2005 (in progress). It is planned to add records for 2006 and 2007 during 2009. In addition, IHO contains all the Irish material currently held on the online Royal Historical Society Bibliography. (The latter is less comprehensive but covers a longer period of publications, up to the most recent.) During the current phase of funding from the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences (2006-9), particular attention is being paid to enhancing coverage of the Irish abroad: during 2008 over 500 new records on the Irish abroad have been added, including many references collected in libraries in the U.S.A. and Canada.

Irish History Online includes articles from journals, both national and local history journals, and collective volumes. Searches can be made by author, by subject, by publication details, or by period covered. It is an essential resource for the study of Irish history at any level, and is free of charge to users.

Searching takes the same form as the RHS Bibliography. Users may search via 'Simple search' or 'Full search', and Help menus are the same. Thanks to the connection with the RHS Bibliography, users of Irish History Online may take advantage of links from certain records to other electronic resources, including COPAC (which indicates the location in British and Irish libraries of particular works); World Cat; the Oxford DNB (if the PC is networked to a library with a subscription to the DNB); and full text versions of some articles through EDINA's Get Copy service.

The RHS Bibliography itself may be reached via:

http://www.rhs.ac.uk/bibl

We welcome your comments about IHO.

Irish History Online is funded under the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences Government of Ireland Project Grants scheme.

The History of Families and Households: Comparative European Dimensions

Date:
24 June 2010 – 26 June 2010

Following the June 2006 Regional Symposium on ‘Social Behaviour and Family Strategies in the Balkans (16th to 20th Centuries)’ held at the New Europe College in Bucharest, this conference aims to place Balkan family history in its wider European context. While research in family history in the Balkans is still in its infancy compared to that of many other parts of Europe, and scholars can learn much from the methodological groundwork of (for example) the Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure, it is equally true that scholars outside South-Eastern Europe have a limited, indeed stereotyped, understanding of the situation in the region. Bringing these communities of scholars together will be an important step towards a deeper mutual understanding of the issues in family history, and lay better groundwork for a comparative methodology.

The conference will have two elements:

A two-day symposium, with papers drawn equally from specialists in the Balkans and in other parts of Europe. Themes covered will include (but not be limited to):

* kinship and co-residence
* ageing, retirement, and inheritance
* urban and rural – contrasts and relationships
* government and fiscal policies
* the relative influences of religious, cultural, occupational, environmental and socioeconomic factors on family and household structures
* families in literature.

A one-day workshop focusing systematically on methodological issues, with sessions on:

* Laslett’s definitions and classification systems of households and their relevance today
* comparisons of different types of source (e.g. census-type documents; fiscal registers; Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox and Muslim sources)
* the roles of quantitative and qualitative analysis in family history, and the relationship between the two.

Conference organiser(s):
Dr Silvia Sovic, Senior Research Fellow, Institute of Historical Research, University of London
Venue:
Institute of Historical Research, University of London, Senate House, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HU
Location:
London, UK
The_History_of_Families_and_Households_Comparative_European_Dimensions-Second_call_for_papers.doc
Event deadlines
Call for papers deadline:
15 January 2010
The_History_of_Families_and_Households_Comparative_European_Dimensions-Second_call_for_papers.doc
Registration date:
15 April 2010

Institute of Historical Research

Not to be confused with the Institute for Historical Review, an American Holocaust denial organisation.

The Institute of Historical Research (or IHR) is a British educational organisation providing resources and training for historical researchers. It is part of the School of Advanced Study in the University of London and is located at Senate House. The Institute was founded in 1921 by A. F. Pollard. History
[edit] Foundation

The IHR was founded in 1921 by British historian Albert Pollard, a Professor of Constitutional History at University College London. The IHR was directly administered by the Senate of the University of London, rather than being part of one of the federal colleges. It was the first organisation to be administered under such an arrangement, and as such provided the model for other Institutes—many of which later joined the IHR in the University of London's School of Advanced Study.

The IHR's first premises were in 'temporary' huts on Malet Street, on a site now occupied by Birkbeck College. Despite the supposedly temporary nature of this accommodation, the IHR was not to move until 1947, when it took up residence in the north block of Senate House. Still occupying this position, many rooms in the IHR overlook the grass lawn in between Senate House and SOAS, which is where Senate House's unbuilt fourth court would have been.
[edit] Role
Senate House, home to the IHR since 1947

The IHR's role comprises the following:

To promote the study of history and an appreciation of the importance of the past among academics and the general public, in London, in Britain and internationally, and to provide institutional support and individual leadership for this broad historical community

To offer a wide range of services which promote and facilitate excellence in historical research, teaching and scholarship in the UK, by means of its library, seminars, conferences, fellowships, training and publications (both print and digital)

To further high quality research into particular aspects of the past by its research centres – the Centre for Contemporary British History, the Centre for Metropolitan History and the Victoria County History of England

To provide a welcoming environment where historians at all stages in their careers and from all parts of the world can meet formally and informally to exchange ideas and information, and to bring themselves up to date with current developments in historical scholarship

A room in the IHR Library


Sign in Senate House


An MA seminar in progress
[edit] Functioning of the IHR

In order to fulfill its role as defined above, the IHR maintains different academic institutions, such as a library, the seminar programme as well as several integrated bodies and programmes. It also continues to publish high quality historical research.
[edit] Library

From the beginning the founders of the Institute of Historical Research envisaged a combination of scholarship and library. This tradition is continued in that the seminars still take place in the rooms of the library. The library itself (its collection policy unaltered since the its foundation) collects sources for the History of Western Europe and areas affected by the European expansion. It now contains roughly 170,000 volumes. There are sizable holdings for the British Isles, as well as for Germany, Austria, France, the Low countries,Italy, Spain, Portugal, Latin America, the US and colonial history, ecclesiastical, Byzantine and crusader history as well as small holdings for Eastern Europe, Switzerland and Scandinavia. The library is particularly good for sources on local history both of the British Isles and Europe. It contains the largest collection of Low Countries material outside of those countries (due to gifts from the Netherlands and research interests of scholars working there), the most complete collection of French cartularies outside of France as well as collections of poll books for the United Kingdom and a complete run of the Victoria County History books. The collections have been supplemented by donations and bequests from many different scholars, such as the Wright collection (currently being integrated into the library holdings).
[edit] Seminar programme

The IHR supports and promotes a wide variety of seminars. They are accessible to all interested in the topic under discussion. Seminar topics range from the Early Middle Ages to Modern Britain, from the history of gardening to the philosophy of history. [1]
[edit] Conferences

In addition to the seminars the IHR is also involved with a number of conference. Of these the Anglo-American conference is probably the largest, but there are also many others being run throughout the year.
[edit] Integrated bodies

Besides the core activities, several research centres are integrated into the Institute. These are:-*the Victoria County History, who have recently developed "England's Past for Everyone"Institute of Historical Research. "Victoria Councy History". http://www.victoriacountyhistory.ac.uk/webdav/harmonise?Page/@id=71. Retrieved 2009-05-31. England's Past for Everyone(organization). "England's Past for Everyone". http://www.englandspastforeveryone.org.uk/webdav/harmonise?Page/@id=12. Retrieved 2009-05-31.

* CCBH and History & Policy "History and Policy, University of London". http://www.historyandpolicy.org/.
* Centre for Metropolitan History "Centre for Metropolitan History". Centre for Metropolitan History, University of London. http://www.history.ac.uk/cmh/cmh.main.html.
o The CCBH and the CMH offer taught M.A. and M.Phil.-- Ph.D. degrees can also be undertaken"University of London, Advanced Studies in History". http://www.history.ac.uk/degrees/.

[edit] Interesting facts
[edit] Nazi book donation housed in the IHR Library
One of the books donated to the IHR by Ribbentrop in 1937

Among the IHR’s extensive collection of books on European history are a set of books donated to the University of London by the Nazis in 1937. The presentation was made by Joachim von Ribbentrop, who was at the time Nazi Germany’s Ambassador to Britain. These books are still complete with original bookplates marking them as a ‘Gift of the German Reich’.

James Bavington Jeffreys, a student at the LSE at the time, wrote an account of the attempt by University of London students to block the donation. [1] Jeffreys attempted to rally support against the donation from the History teaching staff at the LSE. Among the staff he spoke to were Sir Charles Webster and Richard Tawney, but he was unable to raise any support amongst the academics against the donation. Eventually it was left to the students themselves to make a stand. Around fifty students gathered outside Senate House, and demonstrated as Ribbentrop arrived to make the donation. Jeffreys noted: “…more than one college of the University was represented, to show it was not just the ‘left-wingers’ of the LSE”

NWFP bans demolition of all historical buildings

Sunday, October 25, 2009

Friday, May 01, 2009
ThNews

The NWFP government has banned demolition of all historical buildings in the province and decided to rehabilitate and preserve them as heritage.

A high-level meeting held here Thursday with Provincial Minister for Sports, Culture and Tourism Syed Aqil Shah in the chair decided to clamp a ban on demolition of all old and historic landscapes in the province and permanently restore and preserve them.

Attended by senior level officers from environment, culture, forest, archaeology, works and services and administration departments and commissioner of Hazara Division, the meeting discussed the steps for rehabilitating and restoring the national heritage buildings and make them attractive for tourists.

It was also decided to constitute a team for collecting information about such sites, buildings and landscapes and submit findings for the purpose. The meeting was called to deliberate upon the issue of demolition of historical buildings, especially the auction of Dagri Forest Rest House, the provincial minister Syed Aqil Shah said.

The minister said after reading the story about auction of the bungalow in The News, he contacted the Chief Minister Ameer Haider Hoti and requested him to stop demolition of the building. The chief minister took a serious notice of the issue and instructed all the departments concerned to stop demolition of the bungalow and preserve it as heritage, he added.

“We have issued directives to the departments concerned that in future no historical building, site or landscape could be demolished or its originality disturbed,” he added.

Aqil Shah said not only Dagri Forest Rest House, but other old buildings would be preserved and publicized for promotion of tourism. The province is culturally rich and has a number of historical landscapes even older than British era that need to be protected and preserved, he said, adding the government was taking a keen interest in safeguarding the cultural and historical heritage.

The government is introducing a package ‘See Peshawar’ (the oldest living city) to attract tourists that would be a joint project of the tourism and archaeology departments, he added. Other packages include restoration of Gore Khuttri and Mohallah Sethian and opening them for tourists as historical sites.

Aqil Shah said he had visited this British-ear Dagri Forest Rest House built in 1860 and the news about its auction disturbed him that’s why he asked the chief minister to stop its demolition and that was done accordingly. He said all the SHOs and police stations in Hazara Division would be directed to have a check on all historical buildings and take quick action if some one tried to damage or demolish them.

Selected Historical Buildings

Wazir Mansion:-

Wazir Mansion is located in Kharadar the neighbourhood of Karachi. Wazir Mansion is the birthplace of Quaid-e-Azam, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan. It now serves as a museum and national archive. The house has been declared as a protected national monument by the Government of Pakistan.

Ziarat Residence:-

Ziarat is most famous for the Residency, where Muhammad Ali Jinnah spent the last days of his life. The Residency was constructed in 1892. It is an important building; the whole building is actually a wooden structure beautifully designed and has great architectural importance. It was originally meant to be a sanatorium, and it was converted into the summer residence of the Agent of the Governor General. It is now a National Monument. The residency catches the tourists’ attention due to its unique location and the wonderful hilly surroundings.

Iqbal Manzil:-

Iqbal Manzil is the birth place of famous poet Dr. Muhammad Allama Iqbal in the centre of the historic city of Sialkot. It has been converted into a museum cum libarary. Iqbal Manzil was purchased in 1861 by Mohammad Rafique, the grandfather of Dr Mohammed Iqbal. The house was originally very small, but each successor kept adding to it and the building grew in size. After the death of his father, Iqbal named his elder brother, Ata Mohammad, the owner of the house. Ata Mohammed left two sons after his death who left the house and took up residences in Karachi and Lahore. Many tourists come especially to Sialkot to take a look at the poet’s home, which has now been restored as part of national heritage, where he lived and wrote poetry that would make him the legend one day that he is.The museum consists of a guided tour of some rooms of the mansion, and displays some furniture and other objects used by Allama Iqbal.The management has displayed some rare pictures of Allama Iqbal, his family, teachers, class fellows and other leaders of the All India Muslim League at the building. Most of these photos hold autographs of Dr Muhammad Iqbal. After the renovation, over 200 people visit the ancient place every day. The Punjab government promise to establish an advanced research centre at Iqbal Manzil has yet to be materialised. A room of Iqbal Manzil houses more than 4,000 old books, among them 2,000 are on Iqbaliyat. It is planned to build a large library by collecting books, both on and by Iqbal, from all over the world where research could being conducted on the poet and his works. This library has already facilitated 5 students to attain their PhD degree on the works of Iqbal.


Mohatta Palace:-

Mohatta Palace is located in Karachi, Sindh. It was built by Shivratan Chandraratan Mohatta, an ambitious self-made Hindu businessman from Marwar as his summer home in the late 1920s. However, he could enjoy this building for only about two decades before political upheaval and the partition of the subcontinent forced him to leave Karachi. He built the Palace in the tradition of stone palaces in Rajasthan, using pink Jodhpur stone in combination with the

WELCOME TO HISTORIC BUILDINGS TOUR!

While some historic buildings are gone from the Santa Clara Valley as a result of housing and industrial development, others remain and have been handsomely restored. The maintenance of historic buildings owned outright by city governments in the Valley has been spotty, with no clear cut policy on funding for repairs and restoration. Private donations have been solicited but generally have been inadequate. Also, lacking is a clear policy for City purchase of historic structures, acceptance of donated historic structures and guidelines for condemnation by private owners. Preservation Commissions may make recommendations but have little, if any authority. Hopefully, in the future public and private funding for maintenance and restoration will prevail over neglect and destruction so that these grand architectural treasures will be preserved for viewing and appreciation by current and future generations. The structures shown on this web site were selected for historical significance, architectural style, function and ownership. Historical background information on these buildings has been included along with current photographs. New historical buildings will be added in the future. Enjoy your tour!

Karachi Historical Buildings

CITY COURTS (OLD JAIL) 1868 (M.A. JINNAH ROAD )

Located on the site of an old jail (1847-1906), the City Courts have functioned from these premises since the early part of this century, when the jail was shifted from here (1906). The jail was built in 1847 and after numerous additions, it was completed in 1868. Later it was reconverted into the present City Courts in 1906.



SINDH HIGH COURT 1929 COURT ROAD

This magnificent red stone structure built in the Renaissance Style is among the most imposing buildings of Karachi. With its magnificent cupolas, balconies and tall Roman style columns it was built at a cost Rs. 3 million in 1929. the flight of steps in front of the building leading up to the first storey and the characteristic façade, impart great dignity to this building. The whole structure appears to be a combination of local and Roman styles of architecture.



CLIFTON PROMENADE 1920 CLIFTION

Access to the sea at Clifton is provided by the terraced Parade known as the Jehangir Kothari Parade. The site, owned by Mr. Jehangir H. Kothari, an eminent Karachi citizen, who gifted it along with a handsome donation Rs. 300,000 to the Municipality for the development of recreational facilities. The foundation stone was laid by the Governor of Bombay, Sir George Lloyd on 10th February, 1919 and formally opened by Lady Lloyd on 5th January, 1920. The Lady Lloyd Pier was also opened by her on 21st March, 1921.

The Kiosk at one end of the parade, with its elliptical roof structure, built in Jodhpur stone, has an octagonal seat in the center and was used as a Bandstand in yester-years. A temple of Shiva lies below the Parade, with rock gardens on both sides. The pier is 1300 ft long, 15 ft wide and ends in a 70 ft by 50 ft sea-side Pavilion constructed on piles. Gizri limestone and Jodhpur stone were used for its construction.



THE EMPRESS MARKET

Constructed at a well-chosen site, was clearly visible from a great distance. Although the imperialists were particular in commemorating significant events, The new market a symmetrical building arranged around a courtyard. While the use of the alien Gothic form was understandable, the presence of an atrium was highly unusual for the time. With a frontage of 231 feet on Preedy Street, its four galleries, each 46 feet wide, surround the generous size courtyard, 130 feet by 100 feet. The single-storey building is not pretentious except for the tall central tower that rises to a height of 140 feet.
The design utilizes delicately carved column capitals, as well as carved stone brackets which support the balcony projections. Together with the exquisite leopard heads at the top four corners of the tower, the carved elements demonstrate the skill of the local craftsmen. The building's imposing clock tower was provided with a large chiming clock, unfortunately no longer working, with skeleton iron dials placed on the four sides. Contemporary accounts described the structure as a " very handsome building designed in what is known as the "Domestic Gothic Style" (Baillie 1890).
The Empress Market was praised in no uncertain Commissioner Pritchard, who pointed out in his opening address that only one other market surpassed it in the whole Presidency, namely the 'Crawford Market of Bombay.
Strachan's Empress Market in the English pointed style was comparatively simple in character, but its distinctive clock tower was twelve feet higher than that of the 'Craw



Frere Hall ( Liaquat National Library )

Raised in memory of Sir Bartle Frere (Commissioner of Sind 1851-1859, this Venetian Gothic style building was designed by Colonel Clair Wilkins whose proposal was selected from 12 entries, in what was perhaps the first recorded architectural design competition for a public building in Sind. Completed in 1865 at a cost of Rs.1,80,000 out of which Rs. 22,500 was raised for the memorial through public donations, the building was officially inaugurated by Commissioner Mansfield on 10th Oct. 1865. The gardens around the building were added in 1887-88 by Mr. Benjamin Flinch. Originally the statues of Queen Victoria and King Edward (both of which have now been removed), adorned the garden. The upper floor of this two storied yellowish Karachi limestone building, consists of a 70 ft x 24 ft hall and an orchestral gallery. In yesteryears this building was the hub of Karachi’s socio-cultural activities and also served as a Town Hall with regular public meetings, concerts and theatrical performances. The ground floor is now occupied by the Liaquat Municipal Library.

HINDU GYMKHANA 1925 (SARWAR SHAHEED ROAD )

With its carved cupolas and the miniaturized magnificence of a Rajasthani place the Hindu Gymkhana has almost been adwarfed into invisibility by indiscreet development. Constructed in 1925 on a plot of land measuring 47,000 sq. yds. The Seth Ramgopal Goverdhandas Mohatta Hindu Gymkhana was the first public building in which the sub-continental style of architecture rather than the commonly used European-style was used by its architect Mr. Agha Ahmed Hussain. The stones, for its two feet thick walls, were brought from Bajapur. Its cupolas and balustrades and its scale are directly influenced and derived from the Mughal-Hindu mixed style which characterizes Akber’s Fathepur Sikri. It is perhaps the only example of its type left in Karachi



KARACHI.CENTRAL.JAIL.1906 (BAHADUR YAR JUNG ROAD )

Once located at the northern edge of the city, the Karachi Central Jail, completed in 1906, now lies almost in the heart of city. Orginally a 13 ft high wall enclosed an area of 10,889 square yards and was planned on what was then considered the modern cubicle design. It was meant to house 325 male and 17 female prisoners. The Karachi Jail has housed many prominent leaders of the Pakistan Freedom Movement, including Maulana Mohammad Ali Johar who in September 1921 was sentenced to two years rigorous imprisonment here. During his stay in Karachi Jail, he wrote his famous autobiography my life: A Fragment



KARACHI PORT TRUST 1915 ( M.A. JINNAH ROAD )

This Renaissance Style building, designed by G. Wittet, Consulting Architect to the Government of Bombay, is located opposite Qamar House, a short distance away from Merewether Tower. Completed in 1915 at a cost of Rs. 9,74,990 it was inaugurated by Lord Willington, Governor of Bombay on Jan 5, 1916. A month later it was converted into a 500-bed military hospital for British forces engaged in World War I and was named No.1 Indian General Hospital. From May 6, 1919 when the military vacated the premises, it was reconverted to its original use. Three storey in height, the ground floor has channeled masonry walls , while the two upper storey, treated in continuity, are adorned with architraves, friezes and cornices.



MAZAAR.OF.QUAID-E-AZAM MOHAMMAD ALI JINNAH 1970
M.A. JINNAH ROAD

Located in the heart of the City, this mausoleum harbors the mortal remains of Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Founder of the Nation. Completed in 1970, it is the design of Architect yahya Merchant. From a total reserved area of 131.58 acres an enclosed quadrangular area of about 61 acres is occupied by the main mausoleum building which is placed on an elevated 90 ft square platform. Its massive tapered walls are crowned at the top by a semi-circular dome, 70 ft in diameter. The size of the podium at the base is 300 x 275 ft and the total height of the mausoleum from podium to the top of the dome is 106 ft 6 inches. An 80 ft long chandelier in four tiers and with 48 lights gifted by the Peoples Republic of China, decorates the interior. Graves of our other great leaders, Quaid-e-Millet Liaquat Ali Khan, the First Prime minister of Pakistan, Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah (Quaid-e-Azam’s sister), Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar and Mr. Noorul Amin are also located nearby.



FLAG.STAFF.HOUSE1865( FATIMA JINNAH ROAD )

Flag Staff House was purchased by the Father of Nation, Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah in 1947 from its owner Sohrab Katrak, a leading citizen of Karachi. Designed by Engineer Moncriff for the Karachi Brigade Commander, it was built in the colonial style with buff stone in fine ashler masonry around the year 1865. This approximate date is recorded from the tiles used on the roof which bear the inscription Patent Basel Mission Tile Works, 1865. Upon construction it was used as the residence of Gen. Douglas Gracy, Commanding Officer of Sind Area, i.e. it was the official Residence of the GOC and hence it was known as the Flag Staff House. The 10, 214 sq yd plot of land and the House are now owned by the Federal Ministry of Culture which plans to convert it into a Museum-cum-Library in memory of the Quaid-e-Azam. It is presently being restored.



SINDH ASSEMBLY BUILDING 1942 ( COURT ROAD )

Located diagonally opposite the Sind High Court Building, this imposing structure was built in the year 1942 and serves as a meeting place for the elected members of the provincial parliament. It is simple and straight forward in its architectural design and shows influences of the colonial style. After independence the constituent assembly of Pakistan met in this building. The Quaid-e-Azam was speaker of this constituent assembly. An objective resolution moved by Shaheed-e-Millat Liaquat Ali Khan was passed in this building. It was here that the National Standard was also presented and approved by the constituent assembly. The constitutions of 1954 and 1956 were adopted here before the capital was shifted to Islamabad, three years later.

SIND MADRESSAH-TUL-ISLAM (1885) SHAHRAH-E-LIAQUAT

The Sind Madressah-Tul-Islam, an Alma Mater of the Father of the Nation and dozens of other national leaders, who played prominent roles in the creation of Pakistan, is located on Shahrah-e-Liaquat and was the first Muslim educational complex built in Sind. The Madressah (school) was initiated on 1st Sept. 1885 in a rented two storied building near Bolton Market by K.M. Hassanally Effendi. Upon completion of this building on 14th Nov. 1890, the Madressah moved to the current premises and has functioned uninterruptedly since then. The current site itself was previously a Municipal camel camping ground (carvansarai) which was bestowed by the Karachi Municipality to the Madressah Board. The building was designed by James Strachen according to the sketches of K.B. Wali Mohammad and its foundation stone was laid by Lord Duffering on 14th Nov.1887. The total cost of construction of the main Madressah building came to Rs. 1,97,188

WAZIR MANSION

Foremost among Karachi's historic building is the birthplace of Quaid-e-Azam. The house is balconied, three-storied structure on Newneham Road, located in Kharadar, one of the oldest residential areas of the city. The house has been declared a protected national monument.



QUAID-E-AZAM'S MAUSOLEUM

This white marble Mausoleum with its curved Moorish arches and copper grills resets on an elevated 54 sq. meters platform. The cool inner sanctum reflects the green of a four-tiered crystal chandelier gifted by the peoples Republic of China. The memorial slab framed with silver railings dawns people from far and wide who come to pay their respects to the father of the Nation and to watch the impressive changing of guards ceremony that takes place everyday. Today the Quaid-e-Azam's Mausoleum is a prominent and impressive landmark of Karachi. Nearby are the graves of the “Quaid-e-Millet”. Liaqat Ali Khan, the first Prime Minister of Pakistan and the Quaid`s sister, Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah.



LIAQUAT HALL/BAGH-E-JINNAH

Surrounded by the green Bah-e-Jinnah, Liaqat Hall, originally the freer hall was once the Town Hall where inc colonial days, concerts and social events were held regularly. This two-storied Venetian Gothic building now houses the Liaqat Municipal Library on the ground floor and an art gallery on the upper storey. Named after one of Pakistan's renowned artists, Sadequain the gallery displays a permanent collection of the artists work, Sadequain spent the last years of his life painting a huge mural on the ceiling of the gallery but, sadly, did not lived to complete it.



NATIONAL MUSEUM OF PAKISTAN / BURNS GARDEN

This museum, on Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed Road , contains an important collections of items relating to Pakistan's ancient heritage. Well arranged galleries display Indus Civilization, Gandhara sculptures, Islamic art paintings ancient coins and manuscripts documenting Pakistan's political history. There is also an interesting ethnological gallery

Masjid e Tooba Situated in the Defence Housing Authority area, close to the market, the enormous dome to the Masjid - e - Tooba covers a central hall which can accommodate a congregation of 5,000. The single minaret stands 70 metres high.
Merewether
Tower Situated in the heart of the business centre. Merewether Tower is another landmark of Karachi. It stands 35 metres high and carries a four faced clock.
Fyzee Rahamin Art Gallery

The Fyzee Rahamin Art Gallery and Reference Library to Fine Art Books (Aiwan - e - Rifat) on M R Kiyani road is favourite haven of art lovers.

History of North-West Frontier Province

Thursday, October 22, 2009

The North-West Frontier Province is a province of Pakistan. It lies in a region where the Indian Subcontinent meets the Hindu Kush of Afghanistan.[1]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Pre-modern history
* 2 Modern history
* 3 Mughal era
* 4 Sikh era
* 5 British era
* 6 Geography
* 7 References

[edit] Pre-modern history
Main article: Gandhara

The key to the history of the North-West Frontier Province lies in the recognition of the fact that the valley of Peshawar was always more closely connected politically with Eastern Iran (the ancient Ariana and modern Afghanistan) than with India, though in pre-Islamic times its population was mainly Indian by race. Early history finds the Iranians dominating the whole Indus valley. At some date later than 516 BC Darius Hystaspes sent Scylax, a Greek seaman of Karyanda, to explore the course of the river, and subsequently subdued the races dwelling west of the Indus and north of Kabul.[2]

Gandhara, the modern District of Peshawar, was incorporated in a Persian satrapy; and the Assakenoi, with the tribes farther north on the Indus, formed a special satrapy, that of the Indians. Both satrapies sent troops for Xerxes' invasion of Greece. In the spring of 327 BC Alexander the Great crossed the Indian Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and advanced to Nicaea, where he was joined by Omphis, king of Taxila, and other chiefs. Thence he dispatched part of his force through the valley of the Kabul river, while he himself advanced into Bajaur and Swat with his light troops.[2]

Craterus was ordered to fortify and repeople Arigaion, probably in Bajaur, which its inhabitants had burnt and deserted. Having defeated the Aspasians, from whom he took 40,000 prisoners and 230,000 oxen, Alexander crossed the Gouraios (Panjkora) and entered the territory of the Assakenoi and laid siege to Massaga, which he took by storm. Ora and Bazira (possibly Bazar) soon fell. The people of Bazira fled to the rock Aornos, but Alexander made Embolima (possibly Amb) his basis, and thence attacked the rock, which was captured after a desperate resistance. Meanwhile, Peukelaotis (in Hashtnagar, 17 miles north-west of Peshawar) had submitted, and Nicanor, a Macedonian, was appointed satrap of the country west of the Indus.[3]

Alexander then crossed that river at Ohind or, according to some writers, lower down near Attock. Nicanor was succeeded as satrap by Philippus, who was, however, assassinated by his Greek mercenaries soon after Alexander left India, and Eudamos and Taxiles were then entrusted with the country west of the Indus. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C. Porus obtained possession of the Lower Indus valley, but was treacherously murdered by Eudamos in 317. Eudamos then left India; and with his departure the Macedonian power collapsed, and Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, made himself master of the province. His grandson Asoka made Buddhism the dominant religion in Gandhara and in Pakhli, the modern Hazara, as the rock-inscriptions at Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra show.[3]

After Asoka's death the Mauryan empire fell to pieces, just as in the west the Seleucid power was waning. The Greek princes of Bactria seized the opportunity for declaring their independence, and Demetrius conquered part of Northern India (c. 190 B. c.). His absence led to a revolt by Eucratides, who seized on Bactria proper and finally defeated Demetrius in his eastern possessions. Eucratides was, however, murdered (c. 156 B.C.), and the country became subject to a number of petty rulers, of whom little is known but the names laboriously gathered from their coins. The Bactrian dynasty was attacked from the west by the Parthians and from the north (about 139 B.C.) by the Sakas, a Central Asian tribe. Local Greek rulers still exercised a feeble and precarious power along the borderland, but the last vestige of Greek dominion was extinguished by the Yueh-chi.[3]

This race of nomads had driven the Sakas before them from the highlands of Central Asia, and were themselves forced southwards by the Hiung-nu. One section, known as the Kushan, took the lead, and its chief Kadphises I seized vast territories extending south to the Kabul valley. His son Kadphises II conquered North-Western India, which he governed through his generals. His immediate successors were the kings Kanishka, Huvishka, and Vasushka or Vasudeva, of [3] whom the first reigned over a territory which extended as far east as Benares and as far south as Malwa, comprising also Bactria and the Kabul valley.[4]

Their dates are still a matter of dispute, but it is beyond question that they reigned early in the Christian era. To this period may be ascribed the fine statues and bas-reliefs found in Gandhara (Peshawar) and Udyana (Buner). Under Huvishka's successor, Vasushka, the dominions of the Kushan kings shrank to the Indus valley and the modern Afghanistan; and their dynasty was supplanted by Ki-to-lo, the chief of a Yueh-chi tribe which had remained in Bactria, but was forced to move to the south of the Hindu Kush by the invasion of the Yuan Yuan. The subjects of Ki-to-lo's successors who ruled in the valley of Peshawar are known to the Chinese annalists as the Little Yueh-chi. Their rule, however, did not endure, for they were subdued by the Ephthalites (Ye-ta-i-li-to or Ye-tha), who established a vast empire from Chinese Turkistan to Persia, including the Kabul valley. Known to the Byzantines as the White Huns, they waged war against the Sassanid dynasty of Persia.[4]
[edit] Modern history

Under Toramana and Mihirakula they held Northern India, ruling at Sagala, which may be Sialkot in the Punjab. Mihirakula penetrated far into India, but about 528 was defeated by a confederacy of Indian princes under Yasodharman, and was driven back to the Punjab and Indus valley. There were two distinct streams of Muslim invasion towards India. The earlier had resulted in the conquest of Khorasan ; but, though Kabul had been assailed as early as 655 and made tributary in 683, it regained its independence before 700, and the stream of invasion was deflected towards Multan and Sindh. Ghazni was only taken in 870; and in 902 we find the Kashmir forces deposing the rebellious ruler of Udabhandapura (Ohind) and giving his kingdom to Toramana, son of Lalliya, with the title of Komaluka-the Kamalu of Muslim historians.[4]

In 974 Pirin, the slave-governor of Ghazni, repulsed a force sent from India to seize that stronghold; and in 977 Sabuktagin, his successor, became virtually independent and founded the dynasty of the Ghaznivids. In 986 he raided the Indian frontier, and in 988 defeated Jaipal with his allies at Laghman, and soon after possessed himself of the country up to the Indus, placing a governor of his own at Peshawar. Mahmud, Sabuktagin's son, having secured the throne of Ghazni, again defeated Jaipal in his first raid into India (1001), and in a second expedition defeated Anandpal (1006), both near Peshawar. He also (1024 and 1025) raided the Afghans, a name that now appears for the first time as that of a people living in the hills between Ghazni and the Sulaiman range. The present territories of the North-West Frontier Province, excluding Hazara, thus formed part of the Ghaznivid empire.[4]

In 1179 Muhammad of Ghor took Peshawar, capturing Lahore from Khusru Malik two years later. After Muhammad was assassinated (1206), his able general, Taj-ud-din Yalduz, established himself at Ghazni, the Kurram valley being his real stronghold, until he was driven into Hindustan by the Khwarizmis (1215). The latter were in turn overwhelmed by the Mongols in 1221, when Jalal-ud-din Khwarizmi, defeated on the Indus by Chingiz Khan, retreated into the Sind- Sagar Doab, leaving Peshawar and other provinces to be ravaged by the Mongols. Yet in 1224 we find Jalal-ud-din able to appoint Saif-ud-din Hasan, the Karlugh, in charge of Ghazni. To this territory Saif-ud-din added Karman (Kurram) and Banian (Bannu), and eventually became independent (1236).[5]

In the same year Altamsh set out on an expedition against Banian, but was compelled by illness to return to Delhi. After his death Saif-ud-din attacked Multan, only to be repulsed by the feudatory of Uch, and three years later (1239) the Mongols drove him out of Ghazni and Kurram, but he still held Banian. In his third attempt to take Multan, he was, however, killed (1249), whereupon his son Nasir-ud-din Muhammad became a feudatory of the Mongols, retaining Banian. Eleven years later (r26o) we find him endeavouring to effect an alliance between his daughter and a son of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, and to reconcile the Mongol sovereign with the court of Delhi. By this time the Karlughs had established themselves in the hills.[5]

In 1398 Timur set out from Samarkand to invade India. After subduing Kator, now Chitral, he made his devastating inroad into the Punjab, returning via Bannu in March, 1399. His expedition established a Mongol overlordship in the province, and he is said to have confirmed his Karlugh regent in the possession of Hazara. The descendants of Timur held the province as a dependency of Kandahar, and Shaikh Ali Beg, governor of Kabul under Shah Rukh, made his power felt even in the Punjab. But with the decay of the Timurid dynasty their hold on the province relaxed.[5]

Meanwhile the Afghans were rising to power. Implacably hostile to the Mongols, they now appear as a political factor. At the close of the fourteenth century they were firmly established in their present seats south of Kohat, and in 1451 Bahlol Lodi's accession to the throne of Delhi gave them a dominant position in Northern India. Somewhat later Babar's uncle, Mirza Ulugh Beg of Kabul, expelled the Khashi (Khakhai) Afghans from his kingdom, and compelled them to move eastwards into Peshawar, Swat, and Bajaur. After Babar had seized Kabul he made his first raid into India in 1505, marching down the Khyber, through Kohat, Bannu, Isa Khel, and the Derajat, returning by the Sakhi Sarwar pass. About 1518 he invaded Bajaur and Swat, but was recalled by an attack on Badakhshan. [5]
[edit] Mughal era

In 1519 Babar's aid was invoked by the Gigianis against the Umr Khel Dilazaks (both Afghan tribes), and his victory at Panipat in 1526 gave him control of the province. On his death in 1530 Mirza Kamran became a feudatory of Kabul. By his aid the Ghwaria Khel Afghans overthrew the Dilazaks who were loyal to Humayun, and thus obtained control over Peshawar; but about 1550 Khan Kaju, at the head of a great confederation of Khashi Afghan tribes, defeated the Ghwaria Khel at Shaikh Tapur. Humayun, however, had now overthrown Kamran, and in 1552 he entered Peshawar, which he garrisoned strongly, so that Khan Kaju laid siege to it in vain. Nevertheless the Mughal hold on these territories was weak and often precarious.[6]

On Humayun's death in 1556 Kabul became the apanage of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, Akbar's brother; and in 1564 he was driven back on Peshawar by the ruler of Badakhshan, and had to be reinstated by imperial troops. Driven out of Kabul again two years later, he showed his ingratitude by invading the Punjab; but eventually Akbar forgave him, visited Kabul, and restored his authority. When Mirza Hakim died (1585), Akbar's Rajput general, Kunwar Man Singh, occupied Peshawar and Kabul, where the imperial rule was re-established, Man Singh becoming governor of the province of Kabul. In 1586, however, the Mohmands and others revolted under Jalala, the Roshania heretic, and invested Peshawar.[6]

Man Singh, turning to attack them, found the Khyber closed and was repulsed, but subsequently joined Akbar's forces. Meanwhile, the Yusufzai and Mandaur Afghans had also fallen under the spell of the Roshania heresy; and about 1587 Zain Khan, Kokaltash, was dispatched into Swat and Bajaur to suppress them. The expedition resulted in the disastrous defeat of the Mughals, Birbal, Akbar's favourite, being killed. In 1592 the Afghans invested Peshawar, but Zain Khan relieved the fortress, and in 1593 overran Tirah, Swat, and Bajaur. The Roshanias, however, were still far from subdued. Tirah was their great stronghold, and about 1620 a large Mughal force met with a severe defeat in attempting to enter that country by the Sampagha pass.[6]

Six years later Ihdad, the Roshania leader, was killed ; but Jahangir's death in 1627 was the signal for a general Afghan revolt, and the Roshanias laid siege to Peshawar in 1630, but distrusting their Afghan allies retreated to Tirah. Mughal authority was thus restored, and Tirah was invaded and pacified by the imperial troops in an arduous campaign. Shah Jahan, however, attempted to govern the Afghans despotically and caused great discontent. Nevertheless Raja Jagat Singh held Kohat and Kurram, and thus kept open the communications with Kabul. In 1660 Tirah had to be pacified again; and in 1667 the Yusufzai and Mandaur Afghans were strong enough to cross the Indus, and were only defeated near Attock.[6]

In 1672 Muhammad Amin Khan, Subahdar of Kabul, attempted to force the Khyber, and lost his whole army, 40,000 men, with baggage and materiel. Other disasters followed. At Gandab in 1673 the Afridis defeated a second Mughal army, and in 1674 they defeated a third force at Khapash and drove it into Bajaur. These reverses brought Aurangzeb in person to Hasan Abdal, whence he dispatched a force to Kohat, while a second army forced the Khyber.[7]

Aurangzeb appears to have adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Afghans, some of whom now received fiefs from the emperor. This policy and their internal dissensions kept the country in a state of anarchy, but prevented any concerted Afghan rising against the Mughals. Nevertheless the Afghans overran the Pakhli district of Hazara early in the eighteenth century and the Mughal power rapidly declined, until in 1738 Nadir Shah defeated Nazir Shah, the Mughal governor of Kabul, but allowed him as feudatory to retain that province, which included Peshawar and Ghazni.[7]

Of Nadir Shah's successors, Ahmad Shah Durrani indeed established something more nearly approaching a settled government in the Peshawar valley than had been known for years, but with the advent of Timur Shah anarchy returned once more. On the death of Timur Shah his throne was contested with varying fortunes by his sons, whose dissensions gave ample opportunity to the local chieftains throughout the province of establishing complete independence. Peshawar ultimately fell to the Barakzai family; Dera Ismail Khan to the Sadozais.[7]
[edit] Sikh era

The Sikh invasions began in 1818, and from that date to the annexation by the British the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh were steadily making themselves masters of the country. In 1818 Dera Ismail Khan surrendered to a Sikh army, and five years later the Sikhs harried the Marwat plain of Bannu. In 1836 all authority was taken from the Nawabs of Dera Ismail Khan and a Sikh Kardar appointed in their place. But it was not till after the first Sikh War that the fort of Bannu was built and the Bannuchis brought under the direct control of the Lahore Darbar by Herbert Edwardes.[7]

In 1834, two years after the great Sikh victory over the Afghans at Naushahra, the famous general Hari Singh took possession of Peshawar fort, and at the same time Kohat and Teri were temporarily occupied by Sikh garrisons. These, however, were speedily withdrawn; and the death of Hari Singh in battle with the Afghans near Jamrud in 1837 brought home to Ranjit Singh, now nearing the close of his career, the difficulty of administering his frontier acquisitions. On his death the Sikh policy was changed. Turbulent and exposed tracts, like Hashtnagar and Miranzai, were made over in jagir to the local chieftains, who enjoyed an almost complete independence, and a vigorous administration was attempted only in the more easily controlled areas.[7] Of the Sikh governors, the best remembered for his cruelty and barbaric executions is General Avitabile, who was in charge of Peshawar District from 1838 to 1842.
[edit] British era

Following the treaties of Lahore and Amritsar - the British annexed the frontier territory after the proclamation of 29 March 1849. For a short time the Districts of Peshawar, Kohat, and Hazara were under the direct control of the Board of Administration at Lahore, but about 1850 they were formed into a regular Division under a Commissioner. Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu, under one Deputy-Commissioner, formed part of the Leiah Division till 1861, when two Deputy-Commissioners were appointed and both Districts were included in the Derajat Division, an arrangement which was maintained until the formation of the North-West Frontier Province.[8]

The internal administration differed in no way from the rest of the Punjab. But to maintain the peace of the border a special force-the Punjab Frontier Force-was raised under the direct orders of the Board. It consisted at first of 5 regiments of cavalry, the corps of Guides, 5 regiments of infantry, 3 light field batteries, 2 garrison batteries, 2 companies of sappers and miners, and the Sind camel corps. Various changes were made in the composition of the force, which at length, in 1886, was removed from the control of the Punjab Government and amalgamated with the regular army.[8]

The attitude of the people during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 is the highest tribute that can be paid to the success of the internal administration. In the history of the frontier the interest of that period of stress centred at Peshawar. The Hindustani regiments at Dera Ismail Khan and Kohat were disarmed without difficulty, and troops and levies were hurried away to strengthen the garrison of Peshawar or join the British forces cis-Indus. The situation in Peshawar was very different. The District contained a large Hindustani force, which proved mutinous to the core. It was thought possible that the Amir of Kabul might pour an army through the Khyber.[8]

For one reason or another almost every powerful tribe beyond the border was under a blockade. When the news of the outbreak reached Peshawar, a council of war was at once held and measures adopted to meet the situation. The same night the Guides started on their memorable march to Delhi. On May 21 the 55th Native Infantry rose at Mardan. The majority made good their escape across the Indus, only to perish after fearful privations at the hands of the hill-men of the Hazara border. On May 22, warned by this example, the authorities of Peshawar disarmed the 24th; 27th, and 51st Native Infantry, with the result that Pathans not only of Peshawar, but also from across the border, came flocking in to join the newly raised levies. The next few months were not without incident, though the crisis was past. When the Mutiny was finally suppressed, it was clear that the frontier Districts had proved to the British Government a source of strength rather than of danger.[8]
[edit] Geography

The province was created during the colonial rule of the British empire and was a province of British India. As a province of British India it had an area of 38,665 square miles, of which only 13,193 was under direct control of the British, the remainder occupied by the tribes under the political control of the Agent to the Governor-General. [9]

It was bounded by the Hindu Kush to the north by Baluchistan and Dera Ghazi Khan District to the south, to the east by the princely state of Kashmir and Punjab; to the west by Afghanistan.[9]

The tract between the Indus and the hills comprises four minor natural divisions, each of which formed a separate District. The most northern is the Peshawar valley, a lacustrine basin encircled by hills. To the south of Peshawar lies Kohat, a rugged table-land broken by low ranges of hills and separated from Peshawar by the Jowaki range. South of Kohat again is Bannu, in the broad basin of the Kurram river and completely surrounded by low ranges. The District of Dera Ismail Khan (later Dera Ismail Khan Division) stretched south of Bannu, a vast expanse of barren plain enclosed between the Sulaiman range on the west and the Indus on the east, and tapering to a blunt point at its southern extremity.[10]

In the north the vast territories between the Hindu Kush and the border of Peshawar District formed the Political Agency of Dir, Swat, and Chitral. In the south-west the Wazir hills were divided into two Political Agencies: Northern Waziristan, with its head-quarters in the Tochi valley; and Southern Waziristan, with its head-quarters at Wana. In the latter Agency the Wazir hills merge into the Sulaiman range, the highest point of which is the far-famed Takht-i-Sulaiman in the -lower Shirani country, a political dependency of Dera Ismail Khan District. The precipitous Takht presents the grandest scenery on the frontier, and formed an impassable barrier between the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan.[11]
[edit] References

1. ^ History of NWPF
2. ^ a b North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 148.
3. ^ a b c d North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 149.
4. ^ a b c d North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 150.
5. ^ a b c d North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 151.
6. ^ a b c d North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 152.
7. ^ a b c d e North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 153.
8. ^ a b c d North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 154.
9. ^ a b North-West Frontier Province
10. ^ North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 139.
11. ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 140-141

This article incorporates text from the Imperial Gazetteer of India, a publication now in the public domain.
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History of Sindh

Shahjahan Mosque, which was completed during the early years of his rule.

After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire and its institutions began to decline. Various warring Nawabs took control of vast territories and ruled independently from the Mughal Emperor.

But Sindh faced many threats, Mian Yar Mouhammed Kalhoro (Khudabad) challenged the invader Nadir Shah but failed according to legend: to avenge the massacre of his allies he sent a small force to assassinate Nadir Shah and turn events in favour of the Mughal Emperor during the Battle of Karnal in 1739 but failed again.
[edit] British regime

The British East India Company made its first contacts in the Sindhi port city of Thatta which according to a report was: "a city as large as London containing 50,000 houses which were made of stone and mortar with large verandahs some three or four stories high the the textiles of Sind were the flower of the whole produce of the East, the international commerce of Sind gave it a place among that of Nations, Thatta has 400 schools and 4000 ships at its docks, the city is guarded by well armed Sepoys..."
Flag House, colonial styled building built during the British Raj.

British and Bengal Presidency forces under General Charles James Napier arrived in Sindh in the nineteenth century and conquered Sindh in 1843.

After defeating the Sindhi coalition led by Talpurs and Kalhoras under command of the Sindhi general Mir Nasir Khan Talpur in the fierce Battle of Miani during which 50,000 Sindhis were killed shortly after the defeat Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur commanded another army which fought at the Battle of Dubbo where the young Sindhi general Hoshu Sheedi and 5,000 Sindhis were killed. The first Agha Khan helped the British in their conquest of Sindh and as result he was granted a lifetime pension.

Within weeks Charles Napier and his forces occupied Sindh. After 1853, the British divided Sindh into districts, in each district the they assigned a ruthless Wadera to collect taxes for the British authorities. Wealthy businesses owned by Sindhi Muslim merchants were handed over to the minority Hindu Brahmans leading the province to further unrest and a severe economic depression.

In a highly controversial move, Sindh was later made part of British India's Bombay Presidency much to the surprise of the local population, who found the decision offensive and a powerful unrest followed after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities. Shortly afterwards, the decision was reversed and Sindh became a separate province in 1935.

The British ruled the area for a century. According to Richard Burton Sindh was one of the most restive provinces during the British Raj and was home to many prominent Muslim leaders such as Muhammad Ali Jinnah who strove for greater Muslim autonomy.
[edit] Modern history after independence of Pakistan

On 14 August 1947 Pakistan gained independence from colonial British colonial rule. The province Sindh attained self rule, the first time since the defeat of Sindhi Talpur Amirs in the Battle of Miani on 17 February 1843. The first challenge faced by the Government of Sindh was the settlement of Muslim refugees. Nearly 7 million Muslims from India migrated to Pakistan while nearly equal number of Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan migrated to India. The Muslim refugees known as Muhajirs from India settled in most urban areas of Sindh. Sindh at the time of partition was home to a large number of Hindus who accounted for 27% of the total population of the province. They were more concentrated in the urban centres of the province and had a strong hold on the province's economy and business. Although the relations between the local Muslims and Hindus were good but with the arrival of Muslim refugees in the urban centres of the province, Hindus started to feel unsafe. Many of Sindh's Hindu community where further enticed by their co-relgionists in India to depart with all their belongings and financial capital to further cripple the new nation.

Sindh did not witness any massive level genocide as other parts of the Subcontinent (especially Punjab region) did, comparatively there were few incidents of riots in Karachi and Hyderabad but over all situation remained peaceful mainly due to the efforts of the Muslim Chief Minister of Sindh Mr. Ayub Khuhro. According to 1998 census, there were 2.3 million Hindus in Sindh forming around 7% of the total population of the province[5]. Sindhi Hindus in Pakistan (i.e caste Hindus accounting for 86% of the total Hindu population of Pakistan as of 1998 census) are mainly into small to medium sized businesses. They are mainly traders, retailer/wholesalers, builders as well as into the fields of medical, engineering, law and financial services. However the scheduled caste Hindus (Dalits) are in a poorer state with most of them as bonded labour in the rural areas of the province. Most of the Muslim refugees are settled in urban areas of Sindh especially in Karachi and Hyderabad.

Since Pakistan's Independence in 1947, Sindh has been the destination of a continuous stream of migration from South Asian countries like Bangladesh, Burma, and Afghanistan as well as Pashtun and Punjabi immigrants from the North West Frontier Province and the Punjab Province of Pakistan to Karachi. This is due to the fact that Karachi is the economic magnet of Pakistan attracting people from all over Pakistan. Many native Sindhis resent this influx. Nonetheless, traditional Sindhi families remain prominent in Pakistani politics, especially the Bhutto, Zardari and Soomro dynasties. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Founder of Pakistan, was from Karachi, of Gujarati descent.
[edit] Pakistan Resolution in the Sindh Assembly

The Sindh assembly was the first British Indian legislature to pass the resolution in favour of Pakistan.
[edit] Provincial government
Main article: Government of Sindh

The Provincial Assembly of Sindh is unicameral and consists of 168 seats of which 5% are reserved for non-Muslims and 17% for women. The provincial capital of Sindh is Karachi.
[edit] Politics

Sindh is a strong hold of Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). The PPP is the largest political party of Sindh. And Sindh is known as PPP's home. Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) is the second largest political party of Sindh with concentration in the city Karachi.
[edit] Districts
The twenty three districts of Sindh, Pakistan

There are 23 districts in Sindh, Pakistan.[6]

1. Karachi
2. Jamshoro
3. Thatta
4. Badin
5. Tharparkar
6. Umerkot
7. Mirpur Khas
8. Tando Allahyar
9. Matiari
10. Tando Muhammad Khan
11. Hyderabad
12. Sanghar
13. Khairpur
14. Nawabshah
15. Dadu
16. Qambar Shahdadkot
17. Larkana
18. Naushahro Feroze
19. Ghotki
20. Shikarpur
21. Jacobabad
22. Sukkur
23. Kashmore

[edit] Major cities
Main article: List of cities in Sindh

* Badin
* Dadu
* Daharki
* Diplo
* Ghotki
* Ghambat
* Hala
* Hyderabad
* Jacobabad
* Jamshoro
* Karachi
* Kashmore
* Khairpur
* Larkana
* matli
* Mirpurkhas
* Mithi
* Nasarpur
* Nawabshah
* Raharki
* Ranipur
* Ratodero
* Sanghar
* Sekhat
* Shikarpur
* Sobhodero
* Rohri
* Sukkur
* Tando Jam
* Tando Muhammad Khan
* Thatta
* Ubaro
* Umarkot
* Moro
* Mir Pur Sakro

* Kotri

[edit] Economy
A view of Karachi downtown, the capital of Sindh province
GDP by Province

Sindh has the 2nd largest economy in Pakistan. Historically, Sindh's contribution to Pakistan's GDP has been between 30% to 32.7%. Its share in the Service sector has ranged from 21% to 27.8% and in the Agriculture sector from 21.4% to 27.7%. Performance wise, its best sector, is the Manufacturing sector, where its share has ranged from 36.7% to 46.5%.[7]

Endowed with coastal access, Sindh is a major centre of economic activity in Pakistan and has a highly diversified economy ranging from heavy industry and finance centred in and around Karachi to a substantial agricultural base along the Indus. Manufacturing includes machine products, cement, plastics, and various other goods.

Agriculture is very important in Sindh with cotton, rice, wheat, sugar cane, bananas, and mangoes as the most important crops. Sindh is the richest province in natural resources of gas, petrol, and coal.
[edit] Flora and fauna
See also: Fauna of Sindh
See also: Flora of Sindh
Provincial symbols of Sindh Provincial emblem Coat of arms of Sindh Sindh Coat of Arms PK.PNG
Provincial flag Flag of Sindh Flag of Sindh.PNG
Provincial language سنڌي (unofficial) Nastaliq-proportions.jpg
Provincial animal Sindh Ibex
Provincial bird Sind Sparrow
Provincial tree Capparis decidua Kair.jpg
Provincial flower Water Hyacinth Common Water hyacinth.jpg

The province is mostly arid with scant vegetation except for the irrigated Indus Valley. The dwarf palm, Acacia Rupestris (kher), and Tecomella undulata (lohirro) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the Indus valley, the Acacia nilotica (babul) (babbur) is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks. The Azadirachta indica (neem) (nim), Zizyphys vulgaris (bir) (ber), Tamarix orientalis (jujuba lai) and Capparis aphylla (kirir) are among the more common trees.

Mango, date palms, and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange, and chiku are the typical fruit-bearing trees. The coastal strip and the creeks abound in semi-aquatic and aquatic plants, and the inshore Indus delta islands have forests of Avicennia tomentosa (timmer) and Ceriops candolleana (chaunir) trees. Water lilies grow in abundance in the numerous lake and ponds, particularly in the lower Sindh region.

Among the wild animals, the Sindh ibex (sareh), wild sheep (urial or gadh) and black bear are found in the western rocky range, where the leopard is now rare. The pirrang (large tiger cat or fishing cat) of the eastern desert region is also disappearing. Deer occur in the lower rocky plains and in the eastern region, as do the striped hyena (charakh), jackal, fox, porcupine, common gray mongoose, and hedgehog. The Sindhi phekari, ped lynx or Caracal cat, is found in some areas. In the Kirthar national park of sind, there is a project to introduce tigers and Asian elephants .

Phartho (hog deer) and wild bear occur particularly in the central inundation belt. There are a variety of bats, lizards, and reptiles, including the cobra, lundi (viper), and the mysterious Sindh krait of the Thar region, which is supposed to suck the victim's breath in his sleep. Crocodiles are rare and inhabit only the backwaters of the Indus and the eastern Nara channel. Besides a large variety of marine fish, the plumbeous dolphin, the beaked dolphin, rorqual or blue whale, and a variety of skates frequent the seas along the Sind coast. The pallo (sable fish), a marine fish, ascends the Indus annually from February to April to spawn.
[edit] Education
Year Literacy rate
1972 30.2%
1981 31.5%
1998 45.29%
2008 57.7%

Sources:[8][9]

This is a chart of the education market of Sindh estimated by the government in 1998.[10]
Qualification Urban Rural Total Enrollment ratio (%)
— 14,839,862 15,600,031 30,439,893 —
Below Primary 1,984,089 3,332,166 5,316,255 100.00
Primary 3,503,691 5,687,771 9,191,462 82.53
Middle 3,073,335 2,369,644 5,442,979 52.33
Matriculation 2,847,769 2,227,684 5,075,453 34.45
Intermediate 1,473,598 1,018,682 2,492,280 17.78
BA, BSc… degrees 106,847 53,040 159,887 9.59
MA, MSc… degrees 1,320,747 552,241 1,872,988 9.07
Diploma, Certificate… 440,743 280,800 721,543 2.91
Other qualifications 89,043 78,003 167,046 0.54

Major public and private institutes includes:

* Adamjee Government Science College
* Aga Khan University
* APIIT
* Applied Economics Research Centre
* Bahria University
* College of Digital Sciences
* College of Physicians & Surgeons Pakistan
* COMMECS Institute of Business and Emerging Sciences
* D. J. Science College
* Dawood College of Engineering and Technology
* Defence Authority Degree College for Men
* Dow International Medical College
* Dow University of Health Sciences
* Fatima Jinnah Dental College
* Federal Urdu University
* Government College for Men Nazimabad
* Government College of Commerce & Economics
* Government College of Technology, Karachi
* Government Dehli College
* Government National College (Karachi)
* Hamdard University
* Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry
* Indus Valley Institute of Art and Architecture
* Institute of Business Administration, Karachi
* Institute of Industrial Electronics Engineering
* Institute of Sindhology
* Iqra University
* Islamia Science College (Karachi)
* Isra University
* Jinnah Medical & Dental College
* Jinnah Polytechnic Institute
* Jinnah Post Graduate Medical Centre
* Jinnah University for Women
* KANUPP Institute of Nuclear Power Engineering
* Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences
* Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
* Mumtaz College (Khairpur)
* Mohammad Ali Jinnah University
* National Academy of Performing Arts
* National University of Sciences and Technology
* NED University of Engineering and Technology
* Ojha Institute of Chest Diseases
* PAF Institute of Aviation Technology
* Pakistan Navy Engineering College
* Pakistan Shipowners' College
* Pakistan Steel Cadet College
* Peoples Medical Girls College Nawabshah
* Provincial Institute of Teachers Education Nawabshah
* Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Sciences and Technology, Nawabshah
* Rana Liaquat Ali Khan Government College of Home Economics
* Rehan College of Education
* Saint Patrick's College, Karachi
* Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai University
* Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology
* Sindh Agriculture University
* Sindh Medical College
* Superior College of Science Hyderabad
* Sindh Muslim Law College
* Sir Syed Government Girls College
* Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology
* St. Joseph's College
* Textile Institute Of Pakistan
* University of Karachi
* University of Sindh
* Usman Institute of Technology
* Ziauddin Medical University

There are six Cadet Colleges also. Admission to state run educational institutions in Pakistan is based on the provincial level. The other three provinces have a merit-based intraprovincial admission policy. Sindh is an exception to this general rule, where admissions are allowed on district domiciles of the candidates and their parents. This arrangement discriminates against meritorious students of Sindhi ethnic background, denying them admission to educational institutes and courses of their choice. Currently there is a lot of resentment of this admission policy. Sindhis are demanding intraprovincial merit-based admissions to state run educational institutes, similar to the one existing in other provinces. This will provide equal opportunities to all students of Sindh. Furthermore, the armed forces have also entered the education sector. They are funded by government and operate like private costly education providers.
[edit] Arts and crafts
Main article: Places of historical interest in Sindh

The skill of the Sindhi craftsman continues to exhibit the 5000-year-old artistic tradition. The long span of time, punctuated by fresh and incessant waves of invaders and settlers, provided various exotic modes of arts which, with the passage of time, got naturalized on the soil. The perfected surface decorations of objects of everyday use - clay, metal, wood, stone or fabrics, with the floral and geometrical designs - can be traced back to the Muslim influence.

Though chiefly an agricultural and pastoral province, Sindh has a reputation for Ajrak, pottery, leatherwork, carpets, textiles, and silk cloth which, in design and finish, are matchless. The chief articles produced are blankets, coarse cotton cloth (soosi) camel fittings, metalwork, lacquered work, enamel, gold and silver embroidery. Hala is famous for pottery and tiles; Boobak for carpets; Nasirpur, Gambat and Thatta for cotton lungees and Khes. The earthenware of Johi, metal vessels of Shikarpur, relli, embroidery, and leather articles of Tharparkar, and lacquered work of Kandhkot are some of the other popular crafts.

The pre-historic finds from different archaeological sites such as Mohenjo-daro, engravings in various graveyards, and the architectural designs of Makli and other tombs provide ample evidence of the people in their literary and musical traditions.

Modern painting and calligraphy have also developed in recent times and some young trained men have taken up commercial art collections.
[edit] Cultural heritage
Main article: Sindhi culture
Probably the floor of first mosque in Subcontinent
Mohenjo-daro was the center of the Indus Valley Civilization 3000 BCE-1700 BCE
Sindhi women collecting water from a reservoir on the way to Mubarak Village

Sindh has a rich heritage of traditional handicraft that has evolved over the centuries. Perhaps the most professed exposition of Sindhi culture is in the handicrafts of Hala, a town some 30 kilometres from Hyderabad. Hala’s artisans are manufacturing high quality and impressively priced wooden handicrafts, textiles, paintings, handmade paper products, blue pottery, etc. Lacquered wood works known as Jandi, painting on wood, tiles, and pottery known as Kashi, hand woven textiles including Khadi, Susi, and Ajrak are synonymous with Sindhi culture preserved in Hala’s handicraft.

The Small and Medium Enterprises Authority (SMEDA) is planning to set up an organization of artisans to empower the community. SMEDA is also publishing a directory of the artisans so that exporters can directly contact them. Hala is the home of a remarkable variety of traditional crafts and traditional handicrafts that carry with them centuries of skill that has woven magic into the motifs and designs used.[citation needed]

Sindh is known the world over for its various handicrafts and arts. The work of Sindhi artisans was sold in ancient markets of Armenia, Baghdad, Basra, Istanbul, Cairo and Samarkand. Referring to the lacquer work on wood locally known as Jandi, T. Posten an English traveller who visited Sindh in early 19th century said, the articles of Hala could be compared with exquisite specimens of China.[citation needed] Technological improvements were gradually introduced such as the spinning wheel charkha and treadle pai-chah in the weavers’ loom, to increase refinement in designing, dyeing and printing by block. Painting process amounted for a much higher volume of output. The refined, lightweight, colourful, washable fabrics from Hala became a luxury for people used to only woollens and linens of the age.

Ajrak has been in Sindh since the birth of its civilization. Blue colour is dominantly used in Ajrak. Also, Sindh was traditionally a large producer of indigo and cotton cloth and both used to be exported to the Middle East. Ajrak is a mark of respect when it is given to an honoured quest, friend or woman. In Sindh, it is most commonly given as a gift at Eid, at weddings, or on other special occasions - like homecoming. Along with Ajrak the Rilli or patchwork sheet, is another Sindhi icon and part of the heritage and culture. Every Sindhi home will have set of Rillis - one for each member of the family and few spare for guests. Rilli is made with different small pieces of different geometrical shapes of cloths sewn together to create intricate designs.

Rilhi is also given as a gift to friends and visitors. It is used as a bedspread as well as a blanket. A beautifully sewn Rilli can also become part of a bride or grooms gifts. Rural women in Sindh are skilful in producing Sindhi caps. Sindhi caps are manufactured commercially on a small scale at New Saeedabad and Hala New. These are in demand with visitors from Karachi and other places and these manufacturing units have very limited production due to lack of marketing facilities.
Portrait of a Hindu girl from Sindh

Portrait of a Muslim girl from Sindh

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Junior in traditional Sindhi dress

Japanese in Sindhi dress
Mir Muhammad Naseer Khan Talpur the last ruler of Sindh

The great Pakistani Sufi singer, Abida Parveen visited Oslo in September 2007

Pride of Sindhi nation Shaheed Pir Sabeghatullah Shah Rashidi ( Soreh Badshah)

Pacco Qillo Fort Round Tower
[edit] The Sindhi language
Main article: Sindhi language

Sindhī (Arabic script: سنڌي, Devanagari script: सिन्धी) is spoken by about 15 million people in the province of Sindh. The largest Sindhi-speaking city is Hyderabad, Pakistan. It is an Indo-European language, related to Kutchi, Gujarati and other Indo-European languages prevalent in the region with substantial Persian, Turkish and Arabic loan words. In Pakistan it is written in a modified Arabic script.
[edit] Places of interest
See also: Places of Historical Interest in Sindh
Ranikot Fort
Gorakh Hill Top
Faiz Mahal, Khairpur

Sindh has numerous tourist sites with the most prominent being the ruins of Mohenjo-daro near the city of Larkana. Islamic architecture is quite prominent in the province with the Jama Masjid in Thatta built by the Mughal emperor Shahjahan and numerous mausoleums dot the province including the very old Shahbaz Qalander mausoleum dedicated to the Iranian-born Sufi and the beautiful mausoleum of Muhammad Ali Jinnah known as the Mazar-e-Quaid in Karachi.

* Aror (ruins of historical city) near Sukkur.
* Chaukandi Tombs, Karachi.
* Forts at Hyderabad and Umarkot
* Gorakh Hill near Dadu.
* Kahu-Jo-Darro near Mirpurkhas.
* Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad.
* Makli Graveyard, Asia's Biggest, Makli, Thatta.
* Mazar-e-Quaid Karachi.
* Minar-e-Mir Masum Shah, Sukkur.
* Mohatta Palace Museum, Karachi.
* Rani Bagh, Hyderabad.
* Ranikot Fort near Sann.
* Ruins of Mohenjo-daro & Museum near Larkana.
* Sadhu Bela Temple near Sukkur.
* Shahjahan Mosque, Thatta.
* Shrine of Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai, Bhit Shah.
* Shrine of Shahbaz Qalander, Sehwan Shairf.
* Sukkur barrage, Sukkur.
* Kot Diji Fort, Kot Diji
* Talpurs' Faiz Mahal Palace, Khairpur (princely state).

[edit] Famous peopleNote: Regarding those personalities who were born before 1947 and lived until after independence, the criteria used for judging which list to put them under is when did this person first make a name for themselves, e.g., Mohammad Ali Jinnah.

Historical personalities

* Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai
* Sachal Sarmast
* Shah Inayatullah
* Sami
* Abdullah Shah Ghazi
* Muhammad Ali Jinnah
* Jam Nizamuddin II
* Jam Ferozudin
* Jam Unar
* Jam Sanjar
* Jam Tamachi
* Sardar Darya Khan
* Mian Adam Shah Kalhoro, Amir
* Yar Mouhammed Kalhoro (Khudabad), Amir
* Main Noor Mohammad Kalhoro, Amir
* Mian Ghuam Shah Kalhoro (Shah Wardi Khan), Amir
* Muhammad Muradyab Khan (Nawab Sarbuland Khan), Amir
* Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur
* Gernal Hosh Mohammad Sheedi
* Mir Ali Murad Talpur
* Mir Allahyar Talpur
* Abdul Raheem Grohirri
* Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi
* Molana Ubaidullah Sindhi
* Maulana deen Muhammad Wafai
* Saaen G.M Sayed

Pre-Independence (pre-1947)

* Fatima Jinnah
* Sir Abdullah Haroon
* Qazi Faiz Mohammad
* Sir Ghulam Hussain Hidayat Ullah
* Allah Bux Soomro
* Raees-Ul-Muhajireen Barrister Jan Muhammad Junejo
* Pir Pagaro
* Aga Khan III
* Seth Edulji Dinshaw
* Elsa Kazi
* Khan Bahadur Ghulam Nabi Kazi
* Khan Bahadur Muhmmad Ayub Khuhro
* Pir Illahi Bakhsh
* Allah Bux Soomro
* Abdul Sattar Pirzada
* Khan Sahib Ali Bux Channa
* Nana Ghulam Ally
* Jamshed Nusserwanjee
* Nadirshaw Edulji Dinshaw
* Khan Bahadur Allah Bux Gabole
* K. R. Malkani
* Molana Din Mohammad Wafai
* Syed Hussain Shah He was Pakistan's first boxer to win any medal in olympic boxing

[edit] Technocrats

* Samshad Akhtar
* Shaikh Ayaz
* N M Uquaili
* A G N Kazi

[edit] Judges and lawyers

* Justice Fakhruddin G Ebrahim
* A K Brohi
* Abdul Hafeez Pirzada
* Justice Tufail Ali Abdul Rehman Zubedi
* Barrister Hassanally A. Rahman Zubedi
* Justice Abdul Hafeez Memon
* Justice Rana Bhagwandas
* Justice Z.A. Channa
* Justice Tufail Ali Abdul Rehman
* Justice Abdul Kadir Sheikh
* Justice Sajjad Ali Shah
* Justice Mamoon Kazi

[edit] Post independence

* Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
* Benazir Bhutto
* Muhammad Khan Junejo
* Rasool Bux Palijo
* Miskeen Jahan Khan Khoso
* Air Marshal M Azim Daudpota
* Aftab Shaban Mirani
* Yusuf Haroon
* Murtaza Bhutto

Scholars

* Abul Hassan (First ever translation of Holy Quran made from Arabic to Sindhi Language
* Molana Ubaidullah Sindhi
* Hafiz-ul-milat Hafiz Muhammad Siddique Of Bhar Chandi
* Makhdum Muhammad Hashim Thatwi
* Moalana Taj Mohammad Amrothi
* Allama Ghulam Mustafa Qasmi
* Shams-ul-Ulama Mirza Kalich Baig
* Raees-Ul-Muhajireen Barrister Jan Muhammad Junejo
* Shamsul Ulema Dr Umar Bin Muhammad Daudpota
* Allama Ali Khan Abro
* Maulana deen Muhammad Wafai
* Dr. Ghulam Ali Allana
* Allama I. I. Kazi
* Atta Mohammad Hami
* Allama Ali Sher Hydri
* Dr Mubarak Ali
* Makhdoom Bilawal
* Shaikh Mubarak Sindhi
* Makhdoom Muhammad Zaman Talibul Mola

Entertainment

* Abida Parveen
* Mohammed Ali
* Waheed Murad
* Allan Faqir
* Sarmad Sindhi
* Anwar Maqsood
* Moin Akhtar
* Bushra Ansari
* Talat Hussain
* Ahmed Mughal
* Ashiq Nizamani
* Govind Nihalani
* Fozia Soomro
* Jalal Chandio
* Ramesh Sippy
* Mai Bhaggi
* Faisal Malik
* Waqar Zaka
* Professor Ram Panjwani
* Mohammad Ali Charles(Dino)
* Saifudin A. Channa

Authors

* Muhammad Ibrahim Joyo
* Hassam-ud-Din Rashidi
* Dr. Umar Bin Muhammad Daudpota
* Mirza Qalich Baig
* Allama I. I. Kazi
* Qazi Faiz Mohammad
* Nabi Bux Khan Baloch
* Elsa Kazi
* Ali Muhammad Rashidi
* Bedil Masroor
* Jamal Abro
* G.M. Syed
* Agha Salim
* Pir Ali Muhammad Shah Rashidi
* Professor Amina Khamisani-Channa
* Anwar Pirzado
* Kalyan Advani

Poets

* Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai
* Sachal Sarmast
* Shaikh Ayaz
* Abdul-Qādir Bēdil
* Shah Abdul Karim Bulri
* Shah Inayatullah
* Imdad Hussaini
* Elsa Kazi
* Anwar Pirzado
* Minyoon Shah Inayat
* Behzad Lakhnawi
* Dadan Fakeer
* Adal Soomro
* Ayaz Gul

History of South India

"South Indian" redirects here. For other uses, see South Indian (disambiguation).

South India
View of Pechiparai Dam in Kanyakumari
View of Pechiparai Dam in Kanyakumari

Political Map of South India
Thumbnail map of India with South India highlighted
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
Area 635,780 km²
States and territories Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Lakshadweep*
Most populous cities (2008) Chennai, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Hyderabad, Madurai, Visakhapatnam
Official languages Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, English, French‡
Population 233,000,000
Population density 337/km²
Birth rate 20.4
Death rate 7.7
Infant mortality rate 48.4
Non-numbered Footnotes:[show]
* Lakshadweep and Pondicherry are Union territories of India and under the direct command of the President of India
‡ Urdu is an official language of Andhra Pradesh while French and English are official languages of Pondicherry. See also Official languages of India.

South India, also known as the Dravida in the Indian anthem[1], is the area encompassing India's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Lakshadweep and Pondicherry, occupying 19.31% of area. South India lies in the peninsular Deccan Plateau and is bounded by the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal in the west, south and east respectively. The geography of the region is diverse, encompassing two mountain ranges — the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats and a plateau heartland. Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri rivers are important non-perennial sources of water. Inhabitants of South India are referred to as South Indians. A majority of South Indians speak one of the five Dravidian languages — Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu and Tulu. During its history, a number of dynastic kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history and cultures of modern nation-states such as Sri Lanka,Singapore, Philippines,Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia. The region was colonised by Britain and gradually incorporated into the British Empire.

After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence, the economies of South Indian states have registered higher than national average decadal growth over the past three decades. While South Indian states have improved in some socio-economic metrices,[2][3] economic disparity, illiteracy and poverty continue to affect the region much like the rest of the country. Agriculture is the single largest contributor to the regional net domestic product, while Information technology (IT) is a rapidly growing industry. Literary and architectural styles, evolved over two thousand years, differ from other parts of the country. Politics in South India is dominated by smaller regional political parties rather than by national political parties.

South India ranks the highest in terms of social and economic development in areas such as fertility rate and infrastructure; the fertility rate of South India is 1.9, the lowest of all regions in India.[4]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
* 3 Geography
* 4 Flora and fauna
* 5 Subdivisions
* 6 Demographics
* 7 Economy
* 8 Politics
* 9 Culture and heritage
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 References and bibliography
* 13 External links

[edit] Etymology

Apart from the English language terms South India and Peninsular India, southern India has been known by several other historic names. Adi Shankara coined the name Dravida in the 8th century as he called himself Dravida Shishu, meaning a child from South India (see etymology of Dravida). The term Deccan, an Anglicized form of the word "Dakhhin" which is a derived from the word dakshina meaning south, refers only to the area covered by the Deccan Plateau, a volcanic plateau that covers most of peninsular India excluding the coastal areas.[5] The Carnatic is an English term derived from "Karnād" or "Karunād", meaning high country. The terms Karnād and Carnatic have long overgrown particular association with the plateau and refer to all of South India, including the coasts, the western of which is named the Carnatic coast. The name Karnātaka is derived from the same root.[6]
[edit] History
Main article: History of South India
See also: Middle kingdoms of India and History of India
Hoysala Empire sculptural articulation in Belur.

Carbon dating on ash mounds associated with neolithic cultures in Southern India date back to 8000 BCE. Artefacts such as ground stone axes, and minor copper objects have been found in the region. Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE, iron technology spread through the region; however, there does not appear to be a fully developed Bronze Age preceding the Iron Age in South India.[7] South India was a crossroads of the ancient world, linking the Mediterranean and the Far East. The southern coastline from Karwar to Kodungallur was the most important trading shore in the Indian subcontinent resulting in intermingling between locals and traders.[8] The South Indian coast of Malabar and the Tamil people of the Sangam age traded with the Graeco-Roman world. They were in contact with the Phoenicians, Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, Jews, and Chinese.[9]

There were several significant rulers and dynasties in southern Indian history. Dynasties such as the Satavahanas of Amaravati, Kadambas of Banavasi, Western Ganga Dynasty, Chalukya dynasty of Badami, Western Chalukyas, Eastern Chalukya, Cheras, Cholas, Hoysalas, Kakatiya dynasty, Pallavas, Pandyas, and Rashtrakutas of Manyaketha have ruled over South India. The late medieval period saw the rise of Muslim power in South India. The defeat of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal by Tughlaq forces of the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 CE heralded a new chapter in South Indian history. The struggle of the period was between the Bahmani Sultanate based in Gulbarga (and later, Bidar) and the Vijayanagara Empire with its capital in Vijayanagara in modern Hampi.

With the fall of Vijayanagara and the break-up of the Bahmani sultanate, the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda and Hyderabad became the dominant power in the region. Qutb Shahi dominance of the region continued until the middle of the seventeenth century, when the Mughals under Aurangzeb made determined inroads into the Deccan. Following Aurangzeb’s death, Mughal power weakened, and South Indian rulers gained autonomy from Delhi. The Wodeyar kingdom of Mysore, the Asaf Jahis of Hyderabad, and Marathas all gained power.
Charminar at Hyderabad

In the middle of the eighteenth century, the French and the British initiated a protracted struggle for military control of South India. Shifting alliances between the two European powers and the local powers marked the period with mercenary armies being employed by all sides causing general anarchy in South India. As the British consolidated power over much of India in the late 1850s, they allowed the French to retain their possessions over Pondicherry. The four Anglo-Mysore wars and the three Anglo-Maratha Wars saw Mysore, Pune and Hyderabad allying themselves with the British or the French. South India during the British colonial rule was divided into the Madras Presidency and Hyderabad, Mysore, Thiruvithamcoore (also known as Travancore), Kochi (also known as Cochin or Perumpadapu Swaroopam), Vizianagaram and a number of other minor princely states. British Residents were stationed in the capitals of the important states to supervise and report on the activities of the rulers.

The States Reorganisation Act (1956) created new states (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala) and reorganised modern-day Tamil Nadu along linguistic lines. Additionally, the enclaves of French India, which were ceded to India in the 1950s, were constituted into the union territory of Pondicherry.
[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of South India
Sivasamudram Falls on the Kaveri River near Mysore.

South India is a peninsula in the shape of a vast inverted triangle, bounded on the west by the Arabian Sea, on the east by the Bay of Bengal and on the north by the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The Narmada flows westwards in the depression between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The Satpura ranges define the northern spur of the Deccan plateau. The Western Ghats, along the western coast, mark another boundary of the plateau. The narrow strip of verdant land between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is the Konkan region. The Western Ghats continue south, forming the Malenadu (Canara) region along the Karnataka coast, and terminate at the Nilgiri mountains, an inward (easterly) extension of the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris run in a crescent approximately along the borders of Tamil Nadu with northern Kerala and Karnataka, encompassing the Palakkad and Wayanad hills, and the Satyamangalam ranges, and extending on to the relatively low-lying hills of the Eastern Ghats, on the western portion of the Tamil Nadu - Andhra Pradesh border. The Tirupati and Annamalai hills form part of this range. The low lying coral islands of Lakshadweep are off the south-western coast of India. Sri Lanka lies off the south-eastern coast, separated from India by the Palk Strait and the chain of low sandbars and islands known as Rama's Bridge. The Andaman and Nicobar islands lie far off the eastern coast of India, near the Tenasserim coast of Burma. The southernmost tip of mainland India is at Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) on the Indian Ocean.

The Deccan plateau is the vast elevated region bound by the C-shape defined by all these mountain ranges. No major elevations border the plateau to the east, and it slopes gently from the Western Ghats to the eastern coast. The plateau is watered by the east flowing Godavari and Krishna rivers. The other major rivers of the Deccan plateau are the Pennar and the Tungabhadra, a major tributary of the Krishna. The three major river deltas of South India, the Kaveri, the Godavari and the Krishna, are located along the Bay of Bengal. These areas constitute the rice bowls of South India.

The region has a very tropical climate with the monsoons playing a major part. The South - West Monsoon accounts for most of the rainfall in the region and much of it falls from about June to October. The south-west monsoon starts from Kerala during June and moves up towards the northern parts of India. Tamil Nadu and southeast Andhra Pradesh receive rains from the North - East Monsoon from about November to February. Much of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka has a distinct dry season from about October - May when there is not much rainfall. This region also experiences cooler nights from October to March while the days are pleasantly warm. In the northern parts of the region temperatures can fall below 10 degrees Celsius on occasions at night during this time. Days are very hot from March to June when temps can go over 40 degrees. The southern coastal region has an average minimum temperature of 20 degrees and maximum of 35 degrees.
[edit] Flora and fauna
Main articles: Wildlife of Karnataka, Wildlife of Tamil Nadu, and Wildlife of Kerala
Bangaram Island in the union territory of Lakshadweep.

There is a wide diversity of plants and animals in South India, resulting from its varied climates and geography. Deciduous forests are found along the Western Ghats while tropical dry forests and scrub lands Deccan thorn scrub forests are common in the interior Deccan plateau. The southern Western Ghats have high altitude rain forests called the South Western Ghats montane rain forests. The Malabar Coast moist forests are found on the coastal plains.[10] The Western Ghats itself is a biodiversity hotspot.[11]

Some of India's famous protected areas are found in South India. These include Project Tiger reserves Periyar National Park, Kalakad - Mundanthurai and Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve. Important ecological regions of South India are the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, located at the conjunction of the borders of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the Nilgiri Hills including Mudumalai National Park, Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park Silent Valley National Park, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Nugu Wildlife Sanctuary and the Anamalai Hills including the Eravikulam National Park, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjacentThe Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park of the Western Ghats. Important bird sanctuaries including Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary, Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary, Neelapattu Sanctuary and Pulicat Sanctuary are home to numerous migratory and local birds. Other protected ecological sites include the backwaters like the Pulicut Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Pitchavarum in Tamil Nadu and the famed backwaters of Kerala formed by the Vembanad Lake, the Ashtamudi Lake and the Kayamkulam Lake.

Banana, Musaparadisiaca and Moringa oleifera are found extensively in Lakshadweep while coconut plantations provide economic support to the islands. Lashadweep has been declared a bird sanctuary by the Wildlife Institute of India.[12] Crabs, chiefly hermit crabs, parrot fish and butterfly fish are also found on the islands.
[edit] Subdivisions
Map of South Indian states prior to the States Reorganisation Act (1956).

South India consists of the four southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the Lakshadweep archipelago. Together with Pondicherry, each South Indian state has an elected state government, while the Lakshadweep islands are centrally administered by the President of India. The modern states of South India were created as a result of the States Reorganisation Act[13] (1956), which established states and union territories based on linguistic boundaries. As a result of this act:

* Andhra Pradesh was formed with the transfer of all districts from Hyderabad State and some taluks from Raichur, Bidar, and Gulbarga to Andhra State,
* Kerala was created with the transfer of Malayalam-dominated territories from Madras State, Kasaragod taluk and Malabar district to unapportioned districts of Travancore-Cochin State,
* Mysore State was formed with the transfer of Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwad and Canara districts from Bombay State, Kollegal taluk of Coimbatore from Madras State, unapportioned taluks of Raichur, Bidar and Gulbarga from Hyderabad State and all territories of Coorg to the erstwhile Kingdom of Mysore,
* Madras State was reorganised with the transfer to some talkus from Travancore-Cochin to form the districts of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli,
* Pondicherry was formed out of the territories that were under the control of France,
* Lakshadweep was formed out of the archipelago under the Malabar district of Madras State.

Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1968, while Mysore State was renamed Karnataka in 1973.

Each subregion is further divided into districts; the region of South India has over 100 districts. Each state is headed by a Governor, who is a direct appointee of the President of India, while the Chief Minister is the elected head of the state government and represents the states ruling party or coalition (the role of the Governor is largely ceremonial).
[edit] Demographics
Main article: Dravidian languages









Proto-Dravidian












































Proto South-Dravidian

Proto Central Dravidian

























Proto Tamil-Kannada





Proto Telugu










































Proto Tamil-Toda

Proto Kannada

Proto Telugu































Proto Tamil-Kodagu

Kannada

Telugu











Proto Tamil-Malayalam
























Proto Tamil

Malayalam









Tamil
This tree diagram depicts the genealogy of the primary Dravidian languages spoken
in South India.


The estimated population of South India is 233 million.[14] The largest linguistic groups in South India include the Telugus, Tamils, Kannadigas, Malayalis, Tuluvas, Kodavas and Konkanis. About 83% of South Indians follow Hinduism. Islam has the second-highest number of followers in the region, with 11%, while 5% follow Christianity.

The average literacy rate of South India is approximately 73%, considerably higher than the Indian national average of 60%.[15] Kerala leads the nation with a literacy rate of 91%. The sex ratio in South India is fairly equable at 997; Kerala is the only state in India with a favourable sex ratio.[14] The population density of the region is approximately 463. Scheduled Castes and Tribes form 18% of the population of the region. Agriculture is the major employer in the region — 47.5% of the population is involved in agrarian activities. About 60% of the population lives in permanent housing structures. 47.8% of South India has access to tap water. Wells and springs are other major forms of water supply.

The languages of South India are the Dravidian represented by Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu, besides Gondi and other minor dialects, and the Austro-Asiatic by the Munda languages.[16] South India's predominant language family is Dravidian, a family of approximately seventy-three languages[17] spoken in South Asia.[18] The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 divided states in India along linguistic lines and led to the creation of separate states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu in areas where Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil respectively were dominant.

In the 2001 Census, Telugu had the third largest base of native speakers in India (74 million), after Hindi and Bengali and was awarded the status of classical language in 2008 [1] . Tamil was accorded the status of classical language by the Government of India in 2002 and had about 60 million native speakers. Kannada has 38 million and was awarded the status of classical language in 2008 [2], while Malayalam had 33 million native speakers.[19] Each of these languages is listed as an official language of India, per the Official Languages Act (1963).

Urdu is spoken by over half of the 25 million Muslims in southern India.[19][20] South Indian Muslims in some regions of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka speak a dialect of Urdu called Dakhni, while some in the Dakshina Kannada region of Karnataka and regions in Kerala speak Beary bashe.[21] Both Dakhni and Beary bashe are influenced by other South Indian languages.[19] Tulu, a Dravidian language prevalent in coastal Kerala and Karnataka, is spoken by about 1.5 million people in the region, while Konkani, an Indo-Aryan language, is spoken by over half a million people in the region. English is also widely spoken in urban areas of South India.[22]
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of South India
[hide]Economic and demographic indicators [23]
Parameter South India National
Per capita net state domestic product (SDP) Rs. 25,027.75 (US$ 515.57) Rs. 23,222 (US$ 478.37)
Percentage share in total FDI approved (1993-2003) 5.48 NA
Average annual growth of SDP 5.6 5.6
Percentage of population below poverty line 17.41 26.10
Percentage of urban population 32.82 27.81
Percentage of households with electricity 89.32 67.9
Literacy rate 72.87 61 [24]

India's economy after independence in 1947 conformed to a socialist framework, with strict governmental control over private sector participation, foreign trade and foreign direct investment (FDI). Through 1960-1990, South Indian economies experienced mixed economic growth. In the 1960s, Karnataka and Kerala achieved above average economic growth, while Andhra Pradesh's economy declined during this period. Similarly, Kerala experienced economic decline in the 1970s while the economies of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu consistently exceeded national average growth rates after 1970. Karnataka experienced the highest positive differential in economic growth after the liberalisation of the Indian economy in 1991, while Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka were noted by some to be more reform-oriented in terms of economic policy when compared to other Indian states.[25]

Over 48% of South India's population is engaged in agriculture, which is largely dependent on seasonal monsoons[14] Some of the main crops cultivated in South India include paddy, sorghum, pearl millet, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, chilli, and ragi. Areca, coffee, tea, vanilla, rubber, pepper, tapioca, and cardamom are cultivated on the hills, while coconut grows in abundance in coastal areas. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of rice in India,[26] while Karnataka produces 70% of India's coffee. Frequent droughts in northern Karnataka, Rayalaseema and Telangana have left farmers debt-ridden, forcing them to sell their livestock and sometimes even to commit suicide.[27] The region also suffers from water scarcity, especially during summer. Since the liberalisation of the Indian economy, South India has seen a decrease in revenue from agriculture and agriculture related services [28].

Traditionally, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka have been home to large, public sector industries (referred to as Public Sector Undertakings, or PSUs), with both states posting above average growth rates in this sector following economic liberalisation.[28] Chennai, The Detroit of South Asia accounts for about 35% of India's overall automotive components[29] while the registered headquarters of 42% of all Central PSUs in South India are located in Karnataka.[30] Additionally, the growth of information technology (IT) hubs in the region have spurred economic growth and attracted foreign investments and job seekers from other parts of the country. Bangalore, the Silicon Valley of India, is India's IT hub, and is home to over 200 software companies. In fiscal 2006-2007, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka attracted the third and fourth highest total FDI approvals in India, respectively, totalling to over Rs 41,700 crore (US$ 8.59 billion) [31] Software exports from South India grossed over Rs 64,000 crore (US$ 13.18 billion) in fiscal 2005-06.[32]

Though Kerala lags behind many of the Indian states in terms of industrialisation, it ranks first in the country in terms of quality of life.[33]
[edit] Politics
Main article: Politics in South India
A Left Democratic Front rally in Kerala.
Election poster of AIADMK founder and former chief minister of Tamil Nadu MG Ramachandran.

Politics in South India is dominated by a mix of regional parties and larger national political parties like the Congress (INC), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). With the exclusion of Karnataka, each state has at least two parties dominating politics in that state.[citation needed]

Pre-independence politics in the Madras Presidency was dominated by the Justice Party and the INC. Periyar Ramasami who started the Dravidian movement was elected leader of the Justice Party in 1938 and in 1944 renamed it to Dravidar Kazhagam, with its initial aim being the secession of Dravida Nadu from the rest of India on independence.[34] Following independence, Periyar strongly believed that the party should not participate in elections in the newly created India, something his closest followers disagreed with. In 1948, C. N. Annadurai, a follower of Periyar and a Joint Secretary of Dravidar Kazhagam parted ways with Periyar to form the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam political party.[34] INC's political influence over Tamil Nadu gave way to the rise of the DMK which formed its first government in 1968 and again in 1978. The following year, a split in the DMK resulted in the formation of the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), lead by M. G. Ramachandran. Together, the AIADMK and the DMK currently command a 60% share in Tamil Nadu state elections.

The main facets of state politics in Tamil Nadu included language — the distinction between Tamil and non-Tamil speakers was an important tool used by the DMK in the 1960s and caste — such as the Self-respect Movement. The imposition of Hindi on non-Hindi speaking areas of India has often been a contentious issue in Tamil Nadu. In January-February 1965, large scale anti-Hindi agitations, a cause championed by the DMK,[35] occurred in Tamil Nadu.

In 1982, the establishment of the Telugu Desam Party in Andhra Pradesh by former Telugu actor Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao (NTR) broke the dominance of the INC in Andhra Pradesh politics. NTR successfully challenged the INC's supremacy in the state and his party was voted into power a total of four times. In 1996, a year after winning the state assembly election by a landslide, a dispute between NTR, his wife Lakshmi Parvati and his immediate family resulted in a split in the TDP. Concerned over undue influence over NTR and his policies, the bulk of the party favoured the family under the leadership of NTR's son-in-law, N Chandrababu Naidu, who later became Chief Minister of the state. Naidu was regarded as a visionary who promoted the growth of information technology in the state. On August 26, 2008 Chiranjeevi, the leading actor of the Telugu film industry launched a new party at Tirupathi, called Prajarajyam. He said he would be constesting for the elections scheduled in the next year.

The Janata Dal has been far more successful in Karnataka than it has been in national politics. National political parties such as the BJP and INC have experienced more comparative success in Karnataka than they have in other states of South India. Karnataka's political environment is dominated by two rival caste groups — the Vokkaligas and the Lingayats.[36] Ramakrishna Hegde played an integral part in the ascent of the Janata Dal into the national foray in the late 1980s. However, it was his political rival H. D. Deve Gowda, then the Chief Minister of Karnataka, who later went on to become the Prime Minister of India.

Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDF, led by the Indian National Congress) and the Left Democratic Front (LDF, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist)). Kerala numbers among India's most left-wing states. An interesting phenomenon of Kerala politics is the alternate election of Congress and the Communists to power.
[edit] Culture and heritage
Main article: South Indian culture
A Tamil couple c. 1945; the wife is wearing a madisara sari.
Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, A famous temple located in Tirupati, Andra Pradesh.

According to some experts, the weltanschauung of South Indians is essentially the celebration of the eternal universe through the celebration of the beauty of the body, and motherhood, which is exemplified through their dance, clothing, and sculptures.[37] South Indian women traditionally wear the Saree while the men wear a type of sarong, which could be either a white pancha or a colourful lungi with typical batik patterns.

Rice is the staple diet, while fish is an integral component of coastal South Indian meals. Coconut is an important ingredient in Kerala whereas Andhra Pradesh cuisine is characterized by pickles and spicy curries. Hyderabadi cuisine a legacy of the past, is popular for its Biryani. Dosa, Idli, Uttapam are popular throughout the region. There are large coffee estates in southern Karnataka and parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

The music of South India is known as Carnatic music, which includes rhythmic and structured music by composers like Purandara Dasa, Kanaka Dasa, Tyagaraja, Annamacharya, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Shyama Shastri, Subbaraya Shastri, Mysore Vasudevachar and Swathi Thirunal. The contemporary singer Dr. K. J. Yesudas is a cultural ambassador of Carnatic music.Thiruvarur Bakthavathsalam is a cultural ambassador of carnatic instrumentals. The motion picture industry has emerged as an important platform in South India, over the years portraying the cultural changes, trends, aspirations and developments experienced by its people. Some movie classics like Nammukku paarkkaan munthiri thoppukal (1986) by Padmarajan, Adi Shankara (1984) by director G V Iyer, and Perumthachan (1990) by Ajayan have gained worldwide acclaim. South India is home to several distinct dance forms — the Koodiyattam, Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Yakshagana, Theyyam, Ottamthullal, Oppana, Kerala Natanam and Mohiniaattam.

South India has an independent literary tradition going back over 2500 years. The first known literature of South India are the poetic Sangams, which were written in Tamil between 2500 to 2100 years ago. The 850 CE Kannada classic Kavirajamarga written by King Amoghavarsha I makes references to Kannada literature of King Durvinita in the early sixth century CE. Tamil Buddhist commentators of the tenth century CE Nemrinatham make references to Kannada literature of the fourth century CE. Distinct Malayalam and Telugu literary traditions developed in the following centuries.

South India has two distinct styles of rock architecture, the pure dravida style of Tamil Nadu and the Vesara style (also called Karnata dravida style) present in Karnataka. The inspirational temple sculptures of Hampi, Badami, Bhattiprolu, Pattadakal, Aihole, Belur, Halebidu, Lakkundi, Shravanabelagola, Mahabalipuram, Tanjore, Madurai and the mural paintings of Travancore and Lepakshi temples, also stand as a testament to South Indian culture. The paintings of Raja Ravi Varma are considered classic renditions of many a scenes of South Indian life and mythology.Murudeshwara, a town in Uttar Kannada district is known for the world's tallest Shiva statue.

The main spiritual traditions of South India include both Shaivite and Vaishnavite branches of Hinduism, although Buddhist and Jain philosophies had been influential several centuries earlier. Shravanabelagola in Karnataka is a popular pilgrimage center for Jains. Ayyavazhi is spread significantly across the southernmost parts of South India.[38] Its followers are more densely populated in South Tamil Nadu[39] and Kerala.[40] There is a large Muslim community in South India, particularly in the Malabar coast, which can trace its roots to the ancient maritime trade between Kerala and Omanis and other Arabs. Christianity has flourished in coastal South India from the times of St. Thomas the Apostle who is believed to have come to Kerala and established the Syrian Christian tradition today called as Saint Thomas Christians or Nasranis.[41] Kerala is also home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world who are supposed to have arrived in the Malabar coast during the time of King Solomon.[42] The oldest surviving Jewish synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations is the Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, Kerala.