Historical Places

WELCOME TO IRISH HISTORY ONLINE

2009-10-30T08:36:00.001-07:00

Irish History Online is an authoritative guide (in progress) to what has been written about Irish history from earliest times to the present. It was established in association with the Royal Historical Society Bibliography of British and Irish History (of which it is now the Irish component) and London's Past Online.

Since the most recent update (December 2008) IHO contains some 66,000 items, drawn mostly from Writings on Irish History, and covering publications from 1936 to 2005 (in progress). It is planned to add records for 2006 and 2007 during 2009. In addition, IHO contains all the Irish material currently held on the online Royal Historical Society Bibliography. (The latter is less comprehensive but covers a longer period of publications, up to the most recent.) During the current phase of funding from the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences (2006-9), particular attention is being paid to enhancing coverage of the Irish abroad: during 2008 over 500 new records on the Irish abroad have been added, including many references collected in libraries in the U.S.A. and Canada.

Irish History Online includes articles from journals, both national and local history journals, and collective volumes. Searches can be made by author, by subject, by publication details, or by period covered. It is an essential resource for the study of Irish history at any level, and is free of charge to users.

Searching takes the same form as the RHS Bibliography. Users may search via 'Simple search' or 'Full search', and Help menus are the same. Thanks to the connection with the RHS Bibliography, users of Irish History Online may take advantage of links from certain records to other electronic resources, including COPAC (which indicates the location in British and Irish libraries of particular works); World Cat; the Oxford DNB (if the PC is networked to a library with a subscription to the DNB); and full text versions of some articles through EDINA's Get Copy service.

The RHS Bibliography itself may be reached via:

http://www.rhs.ac.uk/bibl

We welcome your comments about IHO.

Irish History Online is funded under the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences Government of Ireland Project Grants scheme.

The History of Families and Households: Comparative European Dimensions

2009-10-30T08:30:00.000-07:00

Date:
24 June 2010 – 26 June 2010

Following the June 2006 Regional Symposium on ‘Social Behaviour and Family Strategies in the Balkans (16th to 20th Centuries)’ held at the New Europe College in Bucharest, this conference aims to place Balkan family history in its wider European context. While research in family history in the Balkans is still in its infancy compared to that of many other parts of Europe, and scholars can learn much from the methodological groundwork of (for example) the Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure, it is equally true that scholars outside South-Eastern Europe have a limited, indeed stereotyped, understanding of the situation in the region. Bringing these communities of scholars together will be an important step towards a deeper mutual understanding of the issues in family history, and lay better groundwork for a comparative methodology.

The conference will have two elements:

A two-day symposium, with papers drawn equally from specialists in the Balkans and in other parts of Europe. Themes covered will include (but not be limited to):

* kinship and co-residence
* ageing, retirement, and inheritance
* urban and rural – contrasts and relationships
* government and fiscal policies
* the relative influences of religious, cultural, occupational, environmental and socioeconomic factors on family and household structures
* families in literature.

A one-day workshop focusing systematically on methodological issues, with sessions on:

* Laslett’s definitions and classification systems of households and their relevance today
* comparisons of different types of source (e.g. census-type documents; fiscal registers; Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox and Muslim sources)
* the roles of quantitative and qualitative analysis in family history, and the relationship between the two.

Conference organiser(s):
Dr Silvia Sovic, Senior Research Fellow, Institute of Historical Research, University of London
Venue:
Institute of Historical Research, University of London, Senate House, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HU
Location:
London, UK
The_History_of_Families_and_Households_Comparative_European_Dimensions-Second_call_for_papers.doc
Event deadlines
Call for papers deadline:
15 January 2010
The_History_of_Families_and_Households_Comparative_European_Dimensions-Second_call_for_papers.doc
Registration date:
15 April 2010

Institute of Historical Research

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Not to be confused with the Institute for Historical Review, an American Holocaust denial organisation.

The Institute of Historical Research (or IHR) is a British educational organisation providing resources and training for historical researchers. It is part of the School of Advanced Study in the University of London and is located at Senate House. The Institute was founded in 1921 by A. F. Pollard. History
[edit] Foundation

The IHR was founded in 1921 by British historian Albert Pollard, a Professor of Constitutional History at University College London. The IHR was directly administered by the Senate of the University of London, rather than being part of one of the federal colleges. It was the first organisation to be administered under such an arrangement, and as such provided the model for other Institutes—many of which later joined the IHR in the University of London's School of Advanced Study.

The IHR's first premises were in 'temporary' huts on Malet Street, on a site now occupied by Birkbeck College. Despite the supposedly temporary nature of this accommodation, the IHR was not to move until 1947, when it took up residence in the north block of Senate House. Still occupying this position, many rooms in the IHR overlook the grass lawn in between Senate House and SOAS, which is where Senate House's unbuilt fourth court would have been.
[edit] Role
Senate House, home to the IHR since 1947

The IHR's role comprises the following:

To promote the study of history and an appreciation of the importance of the past among academics and the general public, in London, in Britain and internationally, and to provide institutional support and individual leadership for this broad historical community

To offer a wide range of services which promote and facilitate excellence in historical research, teaching and scholarship in the UK, by means of its library, seminars, conferences, fellowships, training and publications (both print and digital)

To further high quality research into particular aspects of the past by its research centres – the Centre for Contemporary British History, the Centre for Metropolitan History and the Victoria County History of England

To provide a welcoming environment where historians at all stages in their careers and from all parts of the world can meet formally and informally to exchange ideas and information, and to bring themselves up to date with current developments in historical scholarship

A room in the IHR Library

Sign in Senate House

An MA seminar in progress
[edit] Functioning of the IHR

In order to fulfill its role as defined above, the IHR maintains different academic institutions, such as a library, the seminar programme as well as several integrated bodies and programmes. It also continues to publish high quality historical research.
[edit] Library

From the beginning the founders of the Institute of Historical Research envisaged a combination of scholarship and library. This tradition is continued in that the seminars still take place in the rooms of the library. The library itself (its collection policy unaltered since the its foundation) collects sources for the History of Western Europe and areas affected by the European expansion. It now contains roughly 170,000 volumes. There are sizable holdings for the British Isles, as well as for Germany, Austria, France, the Low countries,Italy, Spain, Portugal, Latin America, the US and colonial history, ecclesiastical, Byzantine and crusader history as well as small holdings for Eastern Europe, Switzerland and Scandinavia. The library is particularly good for sources on local history both of the British Isles and Europe. It contains the largest collection of Low Countries material outside of those countries (due to gifts from the Netherlands and research interests of scholars working there), the most complete collection of French cartularies outside of France as well as collections of poll books for the United Kingdom and a complete run of the Victoria County History books. The collections have been supplemented by donations and bequests from many different scholars, such as the Wright collection (currently being integrated into the library holdings).
[edit] Seminar programme

The IHR supports and promotes a wide variety of seminars. They are accessible to all interested in the topic under discussion. Seminar topics range from the Early Middle Ages to Modern Britain, from the history of gardening to the philosophy of history. [1]
[edit] Conferences

In addition to the seminars the IHR is also involved with a number of conference. Of these the Anglo-American conference is probably the largest, but there are also many others being run throughout the year.
[edit] Integrated bodies

Besides the core activities, several research centres are integrated into the Institute. These are:-*the Victoria County History, who have recently developed "England's Past for Everyone"Institute of Historical Research. "Victoria Councy History". http://www.victoriacountyhistory.ac.uk/webdav/harmonise?Page/@id=71. Retrieved 2009-05-31. England's Past for Everyone(organization). "England's Past for Everyone". http://www.englandspastforeveryone.org.uk/webdav/harmonise?Page/@id=12. Retrieved 2009-05-31.

* CCBH and History & Policy "History and Policy, University of London". http://www.historyandpolicy.org/.
* Centre for Metropolitan History "Centre for Metropolitan History". Centre for Metropolitan History, University of London. http://www.history.ac.uk/cmh/cmh.main.html.
o The CCBH and the CMH offer taught M.A. and M.Phil.-- Ph.D. degrees can also be undertaken"University of London, Advanced Studies in History". http://www.history.ac.uk/degrees/.

[edit] Interesting facts
[edit] Nazi book donation housed in the IHR Library
One of the books donated to the IHR by Ribbentrop in 1937

Among the IHR’s extensive collection of books on European history are a set of books donated to the University of London by the Nazis in 1937. The presentation was made by Joachim von Ribbentrop, who was at the time Nazi Germany’s Ambassador to Britain. These books are still complete with original bookplates marking them as a ‘Gift of the German Reich’.

James Bavington Jeffreys, a student at the LSE at the time, wrote an account of the attempt by University of London students to block the donation. [1] Jeffreys attempted to rally support against the donation from the History teaching staff at the LSE. Among the staff he spoke to were Sir Charles Webster and Richard Tawney, but he was unable to raise any support amongst the academics against the donation. Eventually it was left to the students themselves to make a stand. Around fifty students gathered outside Senate House, and demonstrated as Ribbentrop arrived to make the donation. Jeffreys noted: “…more than one college of the University was represented, to show it was not just the ‘left-wingers’ of the LSE”

NWFP bans demolition of all historical buildings

2009-10-25T12:34:00.000-07:00

Friday, May 01, 2009
ThNews

The NWFP government has banned demolition of all historical buildings in the province and decided to rehabilitate and preserve them as heritage.

A high-level meeting held here Thursday with Provincial Minister for Sports, Culture and Tourism Syed Aqil Shah in the chair decided to clamp a ban on demolition of all old and historic landscapes in the province and permanently restore and preserve them.

Attended by senior level officers from environment, culture, forest, archaeology, works and services and administration departments and commissioner of Hazara Division, the meeting discussed the steps for rehabilitating and restoring the national heritage buildings and make them attractive for tourists.

It was also decided to constitute a team for collecting information about such sites, buildings and landscapes and submit findings for the purpose. The meeting was called to deliberate upon the issue of demolition of historical buildings, especially the auction of Dagri Forest Rest House, the provincial minister Syed Aqil Shah said.

The minister said after reading the story about auction of the bungalow in The News, he contacted the Chief Minister Ameer Haider Hoti and requested him to stop demolition of the building. The chief minister took a serious notice of the issue and instructed all the departments concerned to stop demolition of the bungalow and preserve it as heritage, he added.

“We have issued directives to the departments concerned that in future no historical building, site or landscape could be demolished or its originality disturbed,” he added.

Aqil Shah said not only Dagri Forest Rest House, but other old buildings would be preserved and publicized for promotion of tourism. The province is culturally rich and has a number of historical landscapes even older than British era that need to be protected and preserved, he said, adding the government was taking a keen interest in safeguarding the cultural and historical heritage.

The government is introducing a package ‘See Peshawar’ (the oldest living city) to attract tourists that would be a joint project of the tourism and archaeology departments, he added. Other packages include restoration of Gore Khuttri and Mohallah Sethian and opening them for tourists as historical sites.

Aqil Shah said he had visited this British-ear Dagri Forest Rest House built in 1860 and the news about its auction disturbed him that’s why he asked the chief minister to stop its demolition and that was done accordingly. He said all the SHOs and police stations in Hazara Division would be directed to have a check on all historical buildings and take quick action if some one tried to damage or demolish them.

Selected Historical Buildings

2009-10-25T12:33:00.000-07:00

Wazir Mansion:-

Wazir Mansion is located in Kharadar the neighbourhood of Karachi. Wazir Mansion is the birthplace of Quaid-e-Azam, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan. It now serves as a museum and national archive. The house has been declared as a protected national monument by the Government of Pakistan.

Ziarat Residence:-

Ziarat is most famous for the Residency, where Muhammad Ali Jinnah spent the last days of his life. The Residency was constructed in 1892. It is an important building; the whole building is actually a wooden structure beautifully designed and has great architectural importance. It was originally meant to be a sanatorium, and it was converted into the summer residence of the Agent of the Governor General. It is now a National Monument. The residency catches the tourists’ attention due to its unique location and the wonderful hilly surroundings.

Iqbal Manzil:-

Iqbal Manzil is the birth place of famous poet Dr. Muhammad Allama Iqbal in the centre of the historic city of Sialkot. It has been converted into a museum cum libarary. Iqbal Manzil was purchased in 1861 by Mohammad Rafique, the grandfather of Dr Mohammed Iqbal. The house was originally very small, but each successor kept adding to it and the building grew in size. After the death of his father, Iqbal named his elder brother, Ata Mohammad, the owner of the house. Ata Mohammed left two sons after his death who left the house and took up residences in Karachi and Lahore. Many tourists come especially to Sialkot to take a look at the poet’s home, which has now been restored as part of national heritage, where he lived and wrote poetry that would make him the legend one day that he is.The museum consists of a guided tour of some rooms of the mansion, and displays some furniture and other objects used by Allama Iqbal.The management has displayed some rare pictures of Allama Iqbal, his family, teachers, class fellows and other leaders of the All India Muslim League at the building. Most of these photos hold autographs of Dr Muhammad Iqbal. After the renovation, over 200 people visit the ancient place every day. The Punjab government promise to establish an advanced research centre at Iqbal Manzil has yet to be materialised. A room of Iqbal Manzil houses more than 4,000 old books, among them 2,000 are on Iqbaliyat. It is planned to build a large library by collecting books, both on and by Iqbal, from all over the world where research could being conducted on the poet and his works. This library has already facilitated 5 students to attain their PhD degree on the works of Iqbal.

Mohatta Palace:-

Mohatta Palace is located in Karachi, Sindh. It was built by Shivratan Chandraratan Mohatta, an ambitious self-made Hindu businessman from Marwar as his summer home in the late 1920s. However, he could enjoy this building for only about two decades before political upheaval and the partition of the subcontinent forced him to leave Karachi. He built the Palace in the tradition of stone palaces in Rajasthan, using pink Jodhpur stone in combination with the

WELCOME TO HISTORIC BUILDINGS TOUR!

2009-10-25T12:31:00.002-07:00

While some historic buildings are gone from the Santa Clara Valley as a result of housing and industrial development, others remain and have been handsomely restored. The maintenance of historic buildings owned outright by city governments in the Valley has been spotty, with no clear cut policy on funding for repairs and restoration. Private donations have been solicited but generally have been inadequate. Also, lacking is a clear policy for City purchase of historic structures, acceptance of donated historic structures and guidelines for condemnation by private owners. Preservation Commissions may make recommendations but have little, if any authority. Hopefully, in the future public and private funding for maintenance and restoration will prevail over neglect and destruction so that these grand architectural treasures will be preserved for viewing and appreciation by current and future generations. The structures shown on this web site were selected for historical significance, architectural style, function and ownership. Historical background information on these buildings has been included along with current photographs. New historical buildings will be added in the future. Enjoy your tour!

Karachi Historical Buildings

2009-10-25T12:31:00.001-07:00

CITY COURTS (OLD JAIL) 1868 (M.A. JINNAH ROAD )

Located on the site of an old jail (1847-1906), the City Courts have functioned from these premises since the early part of this century, when the jail was shifted from here (1906). The jail was built in 1847 and after numerous additions, it was completed in 1868. Later it was reconverted into the present City Courts in 1906.

SINDH HIGH COURT 1929 COURT ROAD

This magnificent red stone structure built in the Renaissance Style is among the most imposing buildings of Karachi. With its magnificent cupolas, balconies and tall Roman style columns it was built at a cost Rs. 3 million in 1929. the flight of steps in front of the building leading up to the first storey and the characteristic façade, impart great dignity to this building. The whole structure appears to be a combination of local and Roman styles of architecture.

CLIFTON PROMENADE 1920 CLIFTION

Access to the sea at Clifton is provided by the terraced Parade known as the Jehangir Kothari Parade. The site, owned by Mr. Jehangir H. Kothari, an eminent Karachi citizen, who gifted it along with a handsome donation Rs. 300,000 to the Municipality for the development of recreational facilities. The foundation stone was laid by the Governor of Bombay, Sir George Lloyd on 10th February, 1919 and formally opened by Lady Lloyd on 5th January, 1920. The Lady Lloyd Pier was also opened by her on 21st March, 1921.

The Kiosk at one end of the parade, with its elliptical roof structure, built in Jodhpur stone, has an octagonal seat in the center and was used as a Bandstand in yester-years. A temple of Shiva lies below the Parade, with rock gardens on both sides. The pier is 1300 ft long, 15 ft wide and ends in a 70 ft by 50 ft sea-side Pavilion constructed on piles. Gizri limestone and Jodhpur stone were used for its construction.

THE EMPRESS MARKET

Constructed at a well-chosen site, was clearly visible from a great distance. Although the imperialists were particular in commemorating significant events, The new market a symmetrical building arranged around a courtyard. While the use of the alien Gothic form was understandable, the presence of an atrium was highly unusual for the time. With a frontage of 231 feet on Preedy Street, its four galleries, each 46 feet wide, surround the generous size courtyard, 130 feet by 100 feet. The single-storey building is not pretentious except for the tall central tower that rises to a height of 140 feet.
The design utilizes delicately carved column capitals, as well as carved stone brackets which support the balcony projections. Together with the exquisite leopard heads at the top four corners of the tower, the carved elements demonstrate the skill of the local craftsmen. The building's imposing clock tower was provided with a large chiming clock, unfortunately no longer working, with skeleton iron dials placed on the four sides. Contemporary accounts described the structure as a " very handsome building designed in what is known as the "Domestic Gothic Style" (Baillie 1890).
The Empress Market was praised in no uncertain Commissioner Pritchard, who pointed out in his opening address that only one other market surpassed it in the whole Presidency, namely the 'Crawford Market of Bombay.
Strachan's Empress Market in the English pointed style was comparatively simple in character, but its distinctive clock tower was twelve feet higher than that of the 'Craw

Frere Hall ( Liaquat National Library )

Raised in memory of Sir Bartle Frere (Commissioner of Sind 1851-1859, this Venetian Gothic style building was designed by Colonel Clair Wilkins whose proposal was selected from 12 entries, in what was perhaps the first recorded architectural design competition for a public building in Sind. Completed in 1865 at a cost of Rs.1,80,000 out of which Rs. 22,500 was raised for the memorial through public donations, the building was officially inaugurated by Commissioner Mansfield on 10th Oct. 1865. The gardens around the building were added in 1887-88 by Mr. Benjamin Flinch. Originally the statues of Queen Victoria and King Edward (both of which have now been removed), adorned the garden. The upper floor of this two storied yellowish Karachi limestone building, consists of a 70 ft x 24 ft hall and an orchestral gallery. In yesteryears this building was the hub of Karachi’s socio-cultural activities and also served as a Town Hall with regular public meetings, concerts and theatrical performances. The ground floor is now occupied by the Liaquat Municipal Library.

HINDU GYMKHANA 1925 (SARWAR SHAHEED ROAD )

With its carved cupolas and the miniaturized magnificence of a Rajasthani place the Hindu Gymkhana has almost been adwarfed into invisibility by indiscreet development. Constructed in 1925 on a plot of land measuring 47,000 sq. yds. The Seth Ramgopal Goverdhandas Mohatta Hindu Gymkhana was the first public building in which the sub-continental style of architecture rather than the commonly used European-style was used by its architect Mr. Agha Ahmed Hussain. The stones, for its two feet thick walls, were brought from Bajapur. Its cupolas and balustrades and its scale are directly influenced and derived from the Mughal-Hindu mixed style which characterizes Akber’s Fathepur Sikri. It is perhaps the only example of its type left in Karachi

KARACHI.CENTRAL.JAIL.1906 (BAHADUR YAR JUNG ROAD )

Once located at the northern edge of the city, the Karachi Central Jail, completed in 1906, now lies almost in the heart of city. Orginally a 13 ft high wall enclosed an area of 10,889 square yards and was planned on what was then considered the modern cubicle design. It was meant to house 325 male and 17 female prisoners. The Karachi Jail has housed many prominent leaders of the Pakistan Freedom Movement, including Maulana Mohammad Ali Johar who in September 1921 was sentenced to two years rigorous imprisonment here. During his stay in Karachi Jail, he wrote his famous autobiography my life: A Fragment

KARACHI PORT TRUST 1915 ( M.A. JINNAH ROAD )

This Renaissance Style building, designed by G. Wittet, Consulting Architect to the Government of Bombay, is located opposite Qamar House, a short distance away from Merewether Tower. Completed in 1915 at a cost of Rs. 9,74,990 it was inaugurated by Lord Willington, Governor of Bombay on Jan 5, 1916. A month later it was converted into a 500-bed military hospital for British forces engaged in World War I and was named No.1 Indian General Hospital. From May 6, 1919 when the military vacated the premises, it was reconverted to its original use. Three storey in height, the ground floor has channeled masonry walls , while the two upper storey, treated in continuity, are adorned with architraves, friezes and cornices.

MAZAAR.OF.QUAID-E-AZAM MOHAMMAD ALI JINNAH 1970
M.A. JINNAH ROAD

Located in the heart of the City, this mausoleum harbors the mortal remains of Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Founder of the Nation. Completed in 1970, it is the design of Architect yahya Merchant. From a total reserved area of 131.58 acres an enclosed quadrangular area of about 61 acres is occupied by the main mausoleum building which is placed on an elevated 90 ft square platform. Its massive tapered walls are crowned at the top by a semi-circular dome, 70 ft in diameter. The size of the podium at the base is 300 x 275 ft and the total height of the mausoleum from podium to the top of the dome is 106 ft 6 inches. An 80 ft long chandelier in four tiers and with 48 lights gifted by the Peoples Republic of China, decorates the interior. Graves of our other great leaders, Quaid-e-Millet Liaquat Ali Khan, the First Prime minister of Pakistan, Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah (Quaid-e-Azam’s sister), Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar and Mr. Noorul Amin are also located nearby.

FLAG.STAFF.HOUSE1865( FATIMA JINNAH ROAD )

Flag Staff House was purchased by the Father of Nation, Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah in 1947 from its owner Sohrab Katrak, a leading citizen of Karachi. Designed by Engineer Moncriff for the Karachi Brigade Commander, it was built in the colonial style with buff stone in fine ashler masonry around the year 1865. This approximate date is recorded from the tiles used on the roof which bear the inscription Patent Basel Mission Tile Works, 1865. Upon construction it was used as the residence of Gen. Douglas Gracy, Commanding Officer of Sind Area, i.e. it was the official Residence of the GOC and hence it was known as the Flag Staff House. The 10, 214 sq yd plot of land and the House are now owned by the Federal Ministry of Culture which plans to convert it into a Museum-cum-Library in memory of the Quaid-e-Azam. It is presently being restored.

SINDH ASSEMBLY BUILDING 1942 ( COURT ROAD )

Located diagonally opposite the Sind High Court Building, this imposing structure was built in the year 1942 and serves as a meeting place for the elected members of the provincial parliament. It is simple and straight forward in its architectural design and shows influences of the colonial style. After independence the constituent assembly of Pakistan met in this building. The Quaid-e-Azam was speaker of this constituent assembly. An objective resolution moved by Shaheed-e-Millat Liaquat Ali Khan was passed in this building. It was here that the National Standard was also presented and approved by the constituent assembly. The constitutions of 1954 and 1956 were adopted here before the capital was shifted to Islamabad, three years later.

SIND MADRESSAH-TUL-ISLAM (1885) SHAHRAH-E-LIAQUAT

The Sind Madressah-Tul-Islam, an Alma Mater of the Father of the Nation and dozens of other national leaders, who played prominent roles in the creation of Pakistan, is located on Shahrah-e-Liaquat and was the first Muslim educational complex built in Sind. The Madressah (school) was initiated on 1st Sept. 1885 in a rented two storied building near Bolton Market by K.M. Hassanally Effendi. Upon completion of this building on 14th Nov. 1890, the Madressah moved to the current premises and has functioned uninterruptedly since then. The current site itself was previously a Municipal camel camping ground (carvansarai) which was bestowed by the Karachi Municipality to the Madressah Board. The building was designed by James Strachen according to the sketches of K.B. Wali Mohammad and its foundation stone was laid by Lord Duffering on 14th Nov.1887. The total cost of construction of the main Madressah building came to Rs. 1,97,188

WAZIR MANSION

Foremost among Karachi's historic building is the birthplace of Quaid-e-Azam. The house is balconied, three-storied structure on Newneham Road, located in Kharadar, one of the oldest residential areas of the city. The house has been declared a protected national monument.

QUAID-E-AZAM'S MAUSOLEUM

This white marble Mausoleum with its curved Moorish arches and copper grills resets on an elevated 54 sq. meters platform. The cool inner sanctum reflects the green of a four-tiered crystal chandelier gifted by the peoples Republic of China. The memorial slab framed with silver railings dawns people from far and wide who come to pay their respects to the father of the Nation and to watch the impressive changing of guards ceremony that takes place everyday. Today the Quaid-e-Azam's Mausoleum is a prominent and impressive landmark of Karachi. Nearby are the graves of the “Quaid-e-Millet”. Liaqat Ali Khan, the first Prime Minister of Pakistan and the Quaid`s sister, Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah.

LIAQUAT HALL/BAGH-E-JINNAH

Surrounded by the green Bah-e-Jinnah, Liaqat Hall, originally the freer hall was once the Town Hall where inc colonial days, concerts and social events were held regularly. This two-storied Venetian Gothic building now houses the Liaqat Municipal Library on the ground floor and an art gallery on the upper storey. Named after one of Pakistan's renowned artists, Sadequain the gallery displays a permanent collection of the artists work, Sadequain spent the last years of his life painting a huge mural on the ceiling of the gallery but, sadly, did not lived to complete it.

NATIONAL MUSEUM OF PAKISTAN / BURNS GARDEN

This museum, on Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed Road , contains an important collections of items relating to Pakistan's ancient heritage. Well arranged galleries display Indus Civilization, Gandhara sculptures, Islamic art paintings ancient coins and manuscripts documenting Pakistan's political history. There is also an interesting ethnological gallery

Masjid e Tooba Situated in the Defence Housing Authority area, close to the market, the enormous dome to the Masjid - e - Tooba covers a central hall which can accommodate a congregation of 5,000. The single minaret stands 70 metres high.
Merewether
Tower Situated in the heart of the business centre. Merewether Tower is another landmark of Karachi. It stands 35 metres high and carries a four faced clock.
Fyzee Rahamin Art Gallery

The Fyzee Rahamin Art Gallery and Reference Library to Fine Art Books (Aiwan - e - Rifat) on M R Kiyani road is favourite haven of art lovers.

History of North-West Frontier Province

2009-10-22T22:27:00.000-07:00

The North-West Frontier Province is a province of Pakistan. It lies in a region where the Indian Subcontinent meets the Hindu Kush of Afghanistan.[1]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Pre-modern history
* 2 Modern history
* 3 Mughal era
* 4 Sikh era
* 5 British era
* 6 Geography
* 7 References

[edit] Pre-modern history
Main article: Gandhara

The key to the history of the North-West Frontier Province lies in the recognition of the fact that the valley of Peshawar was always more closely connected politically with Eastern Iran (the ancient Ariana and modern Afghanistan) than with India, though in pre-Islamic times its population was mainly Indian by race. Early history finds the Iranians dominating the whole Indus valley. At some date later than 516 BC Darius Hystaspes sent Scylax, a Greek seaman of Karyanda, to explore the course of the river, and subsequently subdued the races dwelling west of the Indus and north of Kabul.[2]

Gandhara, the modern District of Peshawar, was incorporated in a Persian satrapy; and the Assakenoi, with the tribes farther north on the Indus, formed a special satrapy, that of the Indians. Both satrapies sent troops for Xerxes' invasion of Greece. In the spring of 327 BC Alexander the Great crossed the Indian Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and advanced to Nicaea, where he was joined by Omphis, king of Taxila, and other chiefs. Thence he dispatched part of his force through the valley of the Kabul river, while he himself advanced into Bajaur and Swat with his light troops.[2]

Craterus was ordered to fortify and repeople Arigaion, probably in Bajaur, which its inhabitants had burnt and deserted. Having defeated the Aspasians, from whom he took 40,000 prisoners and 230,000 oxen, Alexander crossed the Gouraios (Panjkora) and entered the territory of the Assakenoi and laid siege to Massaga, which he took by storm. Ora and Bazira (possibly Bazar) soon fell. The people of Bazira fled to the rock Aornos, but Alexander made Embolima (possibly Amb) his basis, and thence attacked the rock, which was captured after a desperate resistance. Meanwhile, Peukelaotis (in Hashtnagar, 17 miles north-west of Peshawar) had submitted, and Nicanor, a Macedonian, was appointed satrap of the country west of the Indus.[3]

Alexander then crossed that river at Ohind or, according to some writers, lower down near Attock. Nicanor was succeeded as satrap by Philippus, who was, however, assassinated by his Greek mercenaries soon after Alexander left India, and Eudamos and Taxiles were then entrusted with the country west of the Indus. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C. Porus obtained possession of the Lower Indus valley, but was treacherously murdered by Eudamos in 317. Eudamos then left India; and with his departure the Macedonian power collapsed, and Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, made himself master of the province. His grandson Asoka made Buddhism the dominant religion in Gandhara and in Pakhli, the modern Hazara, as the rock-inscriptions at Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra show.[3]

After Asoka's death the Mauryan empire fell to pieces, just as in the west the Seleucid power was waning. The Greek princes of Bactria seized the opportunity for declaring their independence, and Demetrius conquered part of Northern India (c. 190 B. c.). His absence led to a revolt by Eucratides, who seized on Bactria proper and finally defeated Demetrius in his eastern possessions. Eucratides was, however, murdered (c. 156 B.C.), and the country became subject to a number of petty rulers, of whom little is known but the names laboriously gathered from their coins. The Bactrian dynasty was attacked from the west by the Parthians and from the north (about 139 B.C.) by the Sakas, a Central Asian tribe. Local Greek rulers still exercised a feeble and precarious power along the borderland, but the last vestige of Greek dominion was extinguished by the Yueh-chi.[3]

This race of nomads had driven the Sakas before them from the highlands of Central Asia, and were themselves forced southwards by the Hiung-nu. One section, known as the Kushan, took the lead, and its chief Kadphises I seized vast territories extending south to the Kabul valley. His son Kadphises II conquered North-Western India, which he governed through his generals. His immediate successors were the kings Kanishka, Huvishka, and Vasushka or Vasudeva, of [3] whom the first reigned over a territory which extended as far east as Benares and as far south as Malwa, comprising also Bactria and the Kabul valley.[4]

Their dates are still a matter of dispute, but it is beyond question that they reigned early in the Christian era. To this period may be ascribed the fine statues and bas-reliefs found in Gandhara (Peshawar) and Udyana (Buner). Under Huvishka's successor, Vasushka, the dominions of the Kushan kings shrank to the Indus valley and the modern Afghanistan; and their dynasty was supplanted by Ki-to-lo, the chief of a Yueh-chi tribe which had remained in Bactria, but was forced to move to the south of the Hindu Kush by the invasion of the Yuan Yuan. The subjects of Ki-to-lo's successors who ruled in the valley of Peshawar are known to the Chinese annalists as the Little Yueh-chi. Their rule, however, did not endure, for they were subdued by the Ephthalites (Ye-ta-i-li-to or Ye-tha), who established a vast empire from Chinese Turkistan to Persia, including the Kabul valley. Known to the Byzantines as the White Huns, they waged war against the Sassanid dynasty of Persia.[4]
[edit] Modern history

Under Toramana and Mihirakula they held Northern India, ruling at Sagala, which may be Sialkot in the Punjab. Mihirakula penetrated far into India, but about 528 was defeated by a confederacy of Indian princes under Yasodharman, and was driven back to the Punjab and Indus valley. There were two distinct streams of Muslim invasion towards India. The earlier had resulted in the conquest of Khorasan ; but, though Kabul had been assailed as early as 655 and made tributary in 683, it regained its independence before 700, and the stream of invasion was deflected towards Multan and Sindh. Ghazni was only taken in 870; and in 902 we find the Kashmir forces deposing the rebellious ruler of Udabhandapura (Ohind) and giving his kingdom to Toramana, son of Lalliya, with the title of Komaluka-the Kamalu of Muslim historians.[4]

In 974 Pirin, the slave-governor of Ghazni, repulsed a force sent from India to seize that stronghold; and in 977 Sabuktagin, his successor, became virtually independent and founded the dynasty of the Ghaznivids. In 986 he raided the Indian frontier, and in 988 defeated Jaipal with his allies at Laghman, and soon after possessed himself of the country up to the Indus, placing a governor of his own at Peshawar. Mahmud, Sabuktagin's son, having secured the throne of Ghazni, again defeated Jaipal in his first raid into India (1001), and in a second expedition defeated Anandpal (1006), both near Peshawar. He also (1024 and 1025) raided the Afghans, a name that now appears for the first time as that of a people living in the hills between Ghazni and the Sulaiman range. The present territories of the North-West Frontier Province, excluding Hazara, thus formed part of the Ghaznivid empire.[4]

In 1179 Muhammad of Ghor took Peshawar, capturing Lahore from Khusru Malik two years later. After Muhammad was assassinated (1206), his able general, Taj-ud-din Yalduz, established himself at Ghazni, the Kurram valley being his real stronghold, until he was driven into Hindustan by the Khwarizmis (1215). The latter were in turn overwhelmed by the Mongols in 1221, when Jalal-ud-din Khwarizmi, defeated on the Indus by Chingiz Khan, retreated into the Sind- Sagar Doab, leaving Peshawar and other provinces to be ravaged by the Mongols. Yet in 1224 we find Jalal-ud-din able to appoint Saif-ud-din Hasan, the Karlugh, in charge of Ghazni. To this territory Saif-ud-din added Karman (Kurram) and Banian (Bannu), and eventually became independent (1236).[5]

In the same year Altamsh set out on an expedition against Banian, but was compelled by illness to return to Delhi. After his death Saif-ud-din attacked Multan, only to be repulsed by the feudatory of Uch, and three years later (1239) the Mongols drove him out of Ghazni and Kurram, but he still held Banian. In his third attempt to take Multan, he was, however, killed (1249), whereupon his son Nasir-ud-din Muhammad became a feudatory of the Mongols, retaining Banian. Eleven years later (r26o) we find him endeavouring to effect an alliance between his daughter and a son of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, and to reconcile the Mongol sovereign with the court of Delhi. By this time the Karlughs had established themselves in the hills.[5]

In 1398 Timur set out from Samarkand to invade India. After subduing Kator, now Chitral, he made his devastating inroad into the Punjab, returning via Bannu in March, 1399. His expedition established a Mongol overlordship in the province, and he is said to have confirmed his Karlugh regent in the possession of Hazara. The descendants of Timur held the province as a dependency of Kandahar, and Shaikh Ali Beg, governor of Kabul under Shah Rukh, made his power felt even in the Punjab. But with the decay of the Timurid dynasty their hold on the province relaxed.[5]

Meanwhile the Afghans were rising to power. Implacably hostile to the Mongols, they now appear as a political factor. At the close of the fourteenth century they were firmly established in their present seats south of Kohat, and in 1451 Bahlol Lodi's accession to the throne of Delhi gave them a dominant position in Northern India. Somewhat later Babar's uncle, Mirza Ulugh Beg of Kabul, expelled the Khashi (Khakhai) Afghans from his kingdom, and compelled them to move eastwards into Peshawar, Swat, and Bajaur. After Babar had seized Kabul he made his first raid into India in 1505, marching down the Khyber, through Kohat, Bannu, Isa Khel, and the Derajat, returning by the Sakhi Sarwar pass. About 1518 he invaded Bajaur and Swat, but was recalled by an attack on Badakhshan. [5]
[edit] Mughal era

In 1519 Babar's aid was invoked by the Gigianis against the Umr Khel Dilazaks (both Afghan tribes), and his victory at Panipat in 1526 gave him control of the province. On his death in 1530 Mirza Kamran became a feudatory of Kabul. By his aid the Ghwaria Khel Afghans overthrew the Dilazaks who were loyal to Humayun, and thus obtained control over Peshawar; but about 1550 Khan Kaju, at the head of a great confederation of Khashi Afghan tribes, defeated the Ghwaria Khel at Shaikh Tapur. Humayun, however, had now overthrown Kamran, and in 1552 he entered Peshawar, which he garrisoned strongly, so that Khan Kaju laid siege to it in vain. Nevertheless the Mughal hold on these territories was weak and often precarious.[6]

On Humayun's death in 1556 Kabul became the apanage of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, Akbar's brother; and in 1564 he was driven back on Peshawar by the ruler of Badakhshan, and had to be reinstated by imperial troops. Driven out of Kabul again two years later, he showed his ingratitude by invading the Punjab; but eventually Akbar forgave him, visited Kabul, and restored his authority. When Mirza Hakim died (1585), Akbar's Rajput general, Kunwar Man Singh, occupied Peshawar and Kabul, where the imperial rule was re-established, Man Singh becoming governor of the province of Kabul. In 1586, however, the Mohmands and others revolted under Jalala, the Roshania heretic, and invested Peshawar.[6]

Man Singh, turning to attack them, found the Khyber closed and was repulsed, but subsequently joined Akbar's forces. Meanwhile, the Yusufzai and Mandaur Afghans had also fallen under the spell of the Roshania heresy; and about 1587 Zain Khan, Kokaltash, was dispatched into Swat and Bajaur to suppress them. The expedition resulted in the disastrous defeat of the Mughals, Birbal, Akbar's favourite, being killed. In 1592 the Afghans invested Peshawar, but Zain Khan relieved the fortress, and in 1593 overran Tirah, Swat, and Bajaur. The Roshanias, however, were still far from subdued. Tirah was their great stronghold, and about 1620 a large Mughal force met with a severe defeat in attempting to enter that country by the Sampagha pass.[6]

Six years later Ihdad, the Roshania leader, was killed ; but Jahangir's death in 1627 was the signal for a general Afghan revolt, and the Roshanias laid siege to Peshawar in 1630, but distrusting their Afghan allies retreated to Tirah. Mughal authority was thus restored, and Tirah was invaded and pacified by the imperial troops in an arduous campaign. Shah Jahan, however, attempted to govern the Afghans despotically and caused great discontent. Nevertheless Raja Jagat Singh held Kohat and Kurram, and thus kept open the communications with Kabul. In 1660 Tirah had to be pacified again; and in 1667 the Yusufzai and Mandaur Afghans were strong enough to cross the Indus, and were only defeated near Attock.[6]

In 1672 Muhammad Amin Khan, Subahdar of Kabul, attempted to force the Khyber, and lost his whole army, 40,000 men, with baggage and materiel. Other disasters followed. At Gandab in 1673 the Afridis defeated a second Mughal army, and in 1674 they defeated a third force at Khapash and drove it into Bajaur. These reverses brought Aurangzeb in person to Hasan Abdal, whence he dispatched a force to Kohat, while a second army forced the Khyber.[7]

Aurangzeb appears to have adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Afghans, some of whom now received fiefs from the emperor. This policy and their internal dissensions kept the country in a state of anarchy, but prevented any concerted Afghan rising against the Mughals. Nevertheless the Afghans overran the Pakhli district of Hazara early in the eighteenth century and the Mughal power rapidly declined, until in 1738 Nadir Shah defeated Nazir Shah, the Mughal governor of Kabul, but allowed him as feudatory to retain that province, which included Peshawar and Ghazni.[7]

Of Nadir Shah's successors, Ahmad Shah Durrani indeed established something more nearly approaching a settled government in the Peshawar valley than had been known for years, but with the advent of Timur Shah anarchy returned once more. On the death of Timur Shah his throne was contested with varying fortunes by his sons, whose dissensions gave ample opportunity to the local chieftains throughout the province of establishing complete independence. Peshawar ultimately fell to the Barakzai family; Dera Ismail Khan to the Sadozais.[7]
[edit] Sikh era

The Sikh invasions began in 1818, and from that date to the annexation by the British the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh were steadily making themselves masters of the country. In 1818 Dera Ismail Khan surrendered to a Sikh army, and five years later the Sikhs harried the Marwat plain of Bannu. In 1836 all authority was taken from the Nawabs of Dera Ismail Khan and a Sikh Kardar appointed in their place. But it was not till after the first Sikh War that the fort of Bannu was built and the Bannuchis brought under the direct control of the Lahore Darbar by Herbert Edwardes.[7]

In 1834, two years after the great Sikh victory over the Afghans at Naushahra, the famous general Hari Singh took possession of Peshawar fort, and at the same time Kohat and Teri were temporarily occupied by Sikh garrisons. These, however, were speedily withdrawn; and the death of Hari Singh in battle with the Afghans near Jamrud in 1837 brought home to Ranjit Singh, now nearing the close of his career, the difficulty of administering his frontier acquisitions. On his death the Sikh policy was changed. Turbulent and exposed tracts, like Hashtnagar and Miranzai, were made over in jagir to the local chieftains, who enjoyed an almost complete independence, and a vigorous administration was attempted only in the more easily controlled areas.[7] Of the Sikh governors, the best remembered for his cruelty and barbaric executions is General Avitabile, who was in charge of Peshawar District from 1838 to 1842.
[edit] British era

Following the treaties of Lahore and Amritsar - the British annexed the frontier territory after the proclamation of 29 March 1849. For a short time the Districts of Peshawar, Kohat, and Hazara were under the direct control of the Board of Administration at Lahore, but about 1850 they were formed into a regular Division under a Commissioner. Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu, under one Deputy-Commissioner, formed part of the Leiah Division till 1861, when two Deputy-Commissioners were appointed and both Districts were included in the Derajat Division, an arrangement which was maintained until the formation of the North-West Frontier Province.[8]

The internal administration differed in no way from the rest of the Punjab. But to maintain the peace of the border a special force-the Punjab Frontier Force-was raised under the direct orders of the Board. It consisted at first of 5 regiments of cavalry, the corps of Guides, 5 regiments of infantry, 3 light field batteries, 2 garrison batteries, 2 companies of sappers and miners, and the Sind camel corps. Various changes were made in the composition of the force, which at length, in 1886, was removed from the control of the Punjab Government and amalgamated with the regular army.[8]

The attitude of the people during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 is the highest tribute that can be paid to the success of the internal administration. In the history of the frontier the interest of that period of stress centred at Peshawar. The Hindustani regiments at Dera Ismail Khan and Kohat were disarmed without difficulty, and troops and levies were hurried away to strengthen the garrison of Peshawar or join the British forces cis-Indus. The situation in Peshawar was very different. The District contained a large Hindustani force, which proved mutinous to the core. It was thought possible that the Amir of Kabul might pour an army through the Khyber.[8]

For one reason or another almost every powerful tribe beyond the border was under a blockade. When the news of the outbreak reached Peshawar, a council of war was at once held and measures adopted to meet the situation. The same night the Guides started on their memorable march to Delhi. On May 21 the 55th Native Infantry rose at Mardan. The majority made good their escape across the Indus, only to perish after fearful privations at the hands of the hill-men of the Hazara border. On May 22, warned by this example, the authorities of Peshawar disarmed the 24th; 27th, and 51st Native Infantry, with the result that Pathans not only of Peshawar, but also from across the border, came flocking in to join the newly raised levies. The next few months were not without incident, though the crisis was past. When the Mutiny was finally suppressed, it was clear that the frontier Districts had proved to the British Government a source of strength rather than of danger.[8]
[edit] Geography

The province was created during the colonial rule of the British empire and was a province of British India. As a province of British India it had an area of 38,665 square miles, of which only 13,193 was under direct control of the British, the remainder occupied by the tribes under the political control of the Agent to the Governor-General. [9]

It was bounded by the Hindu Kush to the north by Baluchistan and Dera Ghazi Khan District to the south, to the east by the princely state of Kashmir and Punjab; to the west by Afghanistan.[9]

The tract between the Indus and the hills comprises four minor natural divisions, each of which formed a separate District. The most northern is the Peshawar valley, a lacustrine basin encircled by hills. To the south of Peshawar lies Kohat, a rugged table-land broken by low ranges of hills and separated from Peshawar by the Jowaki range. South of Kohat again is Bannu, in the broad basin of the Kurram river and completely surrounded by low ranges. The District of Dera Ismail Khan (later Dera Ismail Khan Division) stretched south of Bannu, a vast expanse of barren plain enclosed between the Sulaiman range on the west and the Indus on the east, and tapering to a blunt point at its southern extremity.[10]

In the north the vast territories between the Hindu Kush and the border of Peshawar District formed the Political Agency of Dir, Swat, and Chitral. In the south-west the Wazir hills were divided into two Political Agencies: Northern Waziristan, with its head-quarters in the Tochi valley; and Southern Waziristan, with its head-quarters at Wana. In the latter Agency the Wazir hills merge into the Sulaiman range, the highest point of which is the far-famed Takht-i-Sulaiman in the -lower Shirani country, a political dependency of Dera Ismail Khan District. The precipitous Takht presents the grandest scenery on the frontier, and formed an impassable barrier between the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan.[11]
[edit] References

1. ^ History of NWPF
2. ^ a b North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 148.
3. ^ a b c d North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 149.
4. ^ a b c d North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 150.
5. ^ a b c d North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 151.
6. ^ a b c d North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 152.
7. ^ a b c d e North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 153.
8. ^ a b c d North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 154.
9. ^ a b North-West Frontier Province
10. ^ North-West Frontier Province - Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 139.
11. ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 140-141

This article incorporates text from the Imperial Gazetteer of India, a publication now in the public domain.
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History of Sindh

2009-10-22T22:24:00.000-07:00

Shahjahan Mosque, which was completed during the early years of his rule.

After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire and its institutions began to decline. Various warring Nawabs took control of vast territories and ruled independently from the Mughal Emperor.

But Sindh faced many threats, Mian Yar Mouhammed Kalhoro (Khudabad) challenged the invader Nadir Shah but failed according to legend: to avenge the massacre of his allies he sent a small force to assassinate Nadir Shah and turn events in favour of the Mughal Emperor during the Battle of Karnal in 1739 but failed again.
[edit] British regime

The British East India Company made its first contacts in the Sindhi port city of Thatta which according to a report was: "a city as large as London containing 50,000 houses which were made of stone and mortar with large verandahs some three or four stories high the the textiles of Sind were the flower of the whole produce of the East, the international commerce of Sind gave it a place among that of Nations, Thatta has 400 schools and 4000 ships at its docks, the city is guarded by well armed Sepoys..."
Flag House, colonial styled building built during the British Raj.

British and Bengal Presidency forces under General Charles James Napier arrived in Sindh in the nineteenth century and conquered Sindh in 1843.

After defeating the Sindhi coalition led by Talpurs and Kalhoras under command of the Sindhi general Mir Nasir Khan Talpur in the fierce Battle of Miani during which 50,000 Sindhis were killed shortly after the defeat Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur commanded another army which fought at the Battle of Dubbo where the young Sindhi general Hoshu Sheedi and 5,000 Sindhis were killed. The first Agha Khan helped the British in their conquest of Sindh and as result he was granted a lifetime pension.

Within weeks Charles Napier and his forces occupied Sindh. After 1853, the British divided Sindh into districts, in each district the they assigned a ruthless Wadera to collect taxes for the British authorities. Wealthy businesses owned by Sindhi Muslim merchants were handed over to the minority Hindu Brahmans leading the province to further unrest and a severe economic depression.

In a highly controversial move, Sindh was later made part of British India's Bombay Presidency much to the surprise of the local population, who found the decision offensive and a powerful unrest followed after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities. Shortly afterwards, the decision was reversed and Sindh became a separate province in 1935.

The British ruled the area for a century. According to Richard Burton Sindh was one of the most restive provinces during the British Raj and was home to many prominent Muslim leaders such as Muhammad Ali Jinnah who strove for greater Muslim autonomy.
[edit] Modern history after independence of Pakistan

On 14 August 1947 Pakistan gained independence from colonial British colonial rule. The province Sindh attained self rule, the first time since the defeat of Sindhi Talpur Amirs in the Battle of Miani on 17 February 1843. The first challenge faced by the Government of Sindh was the settlement of Muslim refugees. Nearly 7 million Muslims from India migrated to Pakistan while nearly equal number of Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan migrated to India. The Muslim refugees known as Muhajirs from India settled in most urban areas of Sindh. Sindh at the time of partition was home to a large number of Hindus who accounted for 27% of the total population of the province. They were more concentrated in the urban centres of the province and had a strong hold on the province's economy and business. Although the relations between the local Muslims and Hindus were good but with the arrival of Muslim refugees in the urban centres of the province, Hindus started to feel unsafe. Many of Sindh's Hindu community where further enticed by their co-relgionists in India to depart with all their belongings and financial capital to further cripple the new nation.

Sindh did not witness any massive level genocide as other parts of the Subcontinent (especially Punjab region) did, comparatively there were few incidents of riots in Karachi and Hyderabad but over all situation remained peaceful mainly due to the efforts of the Muslim Chief Minister of Sindh Mr. Ayub Khuhro. According to 1998 census, there were 2.3 million Hindus in Sindh forming around 7% of the total population of the province[5]. Sindhi Hindus in Pakistan (i.e caste Hindus accounting for 86% of the total Hindu population of Pakistan as of 1998 census) are mainly into small to medium sized businesses. They are mainly traders, retailer/wholesalers, builders as well as into the fields of medical, engineering, law and financial services. However the scheduled caste Hindus (Dalits) are in a poorer state with most of them as bonded labour in the rural areas of the province. Most of the Muslim refugees are settled in urban areas of Sindh especially in Karachi and Hyderabad.

Since Pakistan's Independence in 1947, Sindh has been the destination of a continuous stream of migration from South Asian countries like Bangladesh, Burma, and Afghanistan as well as Pashtun and Punjabi immigrants from the North West Frontier Province and the Punjab Province of Pakistan to Karachi. This is due to the fact that Karachi is the economic magnet of Pakistan attracting people from all over Pakistan. Many native Sindhis resent this influx. Nonetheless, traditional Sindhi families remain prominent in Pakistani politics, especially the Bhutto, Zardari and Soomro dynasties. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Founder of Pakistan, was from Karachi, of Gujarati descent.
[edit] Pakistan Resolution in the Sindh Assembly

The Sindh assembly was the first British Indian legislature to pass the resolution in favour of Pakistan.
[edit] Provincial government
Main article: Government of Sindh

The Provincial Assembly of Sindh is unicameral and consists of 168 seats of which 5% are reserved for non-Muslims and 17% for women. The provincial capital of Sindh is Karachi.
[edit] Politics

Sindh is a strong hold of Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). The PPP is the largest political party of Sindh. And Sindh is known as PPP's home. Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) is the second largest political party of Sindh with concentration in the city Karachi.
[edit] Districts
The twenty three districts of Sindh, Pakistan

There are 23 districts in Sindh, Pakistan.[6]

1. Karachi
2. Jamshoro
3. Thatta
4. Badin
5. Tharparkar
6. Umerkot
7. Mirpur Khas
8. Tando Allahyar
9. Matiari
10. Tando Muhammad Khan
11. Hyderabad
12. Sanghar
13. Khairpur
14. Nawabshah
15. Dadu
16. Qambar Shahdadkot
17. Larkana
18. Naushahro Feroze
19. Ghotki
20. Shikarpur
21. Jacobabad
22. Sukkur
23. Kashmore

[edit] Major cities
Main article: List of cities in Sindh

* Badin
* Dadu
* Daharki
* Diplo
* Ghotki
* Ghambat
* Hala
* Hyderabad
* Jacobabad
* Jamshoro
* Karachi
* Kashmore
* Khairpur
* Larkana
* matli
* Mirpurkhas
* Mithi
* Nasarpur
* Nawabshah
* Raharki
* Ranipur
* Ratodero
* Sanghar
* Sekhat
* Shikarpur
* Sobhodero
* Rohri
* Sukkur
* Tando Jam
* Tando Muhammad Khan
* Thatta
* Ubaro
* Umarkot
* Moro
* Mir Pur Sakro

* Kotri

[edit] Economy
A view of Karachi downtown, the capital of Sindh province
GDP by Province

Sindh has the 2nd largest economy in Pakistan. Historically, Sindh's contribution to Pakistan's GDP has been between 30% to 32.7%. Its share in the Service sector has ranged from 21% to 27.8% and in the Agriculture sector from 21.4% to 27.7%. Performance wise, its best sector, is the Manufacturing sector, where its share has ranged from 36.7% to 46.5%.[7]

Endowed with coastal access, Sindh is a major centre of economic activity in Pakistan and has a highly diversified economy ranging from heavy industry and finance centred in and around Karachi to a substantial agricultural base along the Indus. Manufacturing includes machine products, cement, plastics, and various other goods.

Agriculture is very important in Sindh with cotton, rice, wheat, sugar cane, bananas, and mangoes as the most important crops. Sindh is the richest province in natural resources of gas, petrol, and coal.
[edit] Flora and fauna
See also: Fauna of Sindh
See also: Flora of Sindh
Provincial symbols of Sindh Provincial emblem Coat of arms of Sindh Sindh Coat of Arms PK.PNG
Provincial flag Flag of Sindh Flag of Sindh.PNG
Provincial language سنڌي (unofficial) Nastaliq-proportions.jpg
Provincial animal Sindh Ibex
Provincial bird Sind Sparrow
Provincial tree Capparis decidua Kair.jpg
Provincial flower Water Hyacinth Common Water hyacinth.jpg

The province is mostly arid with scant vegetation except for the irrigated Indus Valley. The dwarf palm, Acacia Rupestris (kher), and Tecomella undulata (lohirro) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the Indus valley, the Acacia nilotica (babul) (babbur) is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks. The Azadirachta indica (neem) (nim), Zizyphys vulgaris (bir) (ber), Tamarix orientalis (jujuba lai) and Capparis aphylla (kirir) are among the more common trees.

Mango, date palms, and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange, and chiku are the typical fruit-bearing trees. The coastal strip and the creeks abound in semi-aquatic and aquatic plants, and the inshore Indus delta islands have forests of Avicennia tomentosa (timmer) and Ceriops candolleana (chaunir) trees. Water lilies grow in abundance in the numerous lake and ponds, particularly in the lower Sindh region.

Among the wild animals, the Sindh ibex (sareh), wild sheep (urial or gadh) and black bear are found in the western rocky range, where the leopard is now rare. The pirrang (large tiger cat or fishing cat) of the eastern desert region is also disappearing. Deer occur in the lower rocky plains and in the eastern region, as do the striped hyena (charakh), jackal, fox, porcupine, common gray mongoose, and hedgehog. The Sindhi phekari, ped lynx or Caracal cat, is found in some areas. In the Kirthar national park of sind, there is a project to introduce tigers and Asian elephants .

Phartho (hog deer) and wild bear occur particularly in the central inundation belt. There are a variety of bats, lizards, and reptiles, including the cobra, lundi (viper), and the mysterious Sindh krait of the Thar region, which is supposed to suck the victim's breath in his sleep. Crocodiles are rare and inhabit only the backwaters of the Indus and the eastern Nara channel. Besides a large variety of marine fish, the plumbeous dolphin, the beaked dolphin, rorqual or blue whale, and a variety of skates frequent the seas along the Sind coast. The pallo (sable fish), a marine fish, ascends the Indus annually from February to April to spawn.
[edit] Education
Year Literacy rate
1972 30.2%
1981 31.5%
1998 45.29%
2008 57.7%

Sources:[8][9]

This is a chart of the education market of Sindh estimated by the government in 1998.[10]
Qualification Urban Rural Total Enrollment ratio (%)
— 14,839,862 15,600,031 30,439,893 —
Below Primary 1,984,089 3,332,166 5,316,255 100.00
Primary 3,503,691 5,687,771 9,191,462 82.53
Middle 3,073,335 2,369,644 5,442,979 52.33
Matriculation 2,847,769 2,227,684 5,075,453 34.45
Intermediate 1,473,598 1,018,682 2,492,280 17.78
BA, BSc… degrees 106,847 53,040 159,887 9.59
MA, MSc… degrees 1,320,747 552,241 1,872,988 9.07
Diploma, Certificate… 440,743 280,800 721,543 2.91
Other qualifications 89,043 78,003 167,046 0.54

Major public and private institutes includes:

* Adamjee Government Science College
* Aga Khan University
* APIIT
* Applied Economics Research Centre
* Bahria University
* College of Digital Sciences
* College of Physicians & Surgeons Pakistan
* COMMECS Institute of Business and Emerging Sciences
* D. J. Science College
* Dawood College of Engineering and Technology
* Defence Authority Degree College for Men
* Dow International Medical College
* Dow University of Health Sciences
* Fatima Jinnah Dental College
* Federal Urdu University
* Government College for Men Nazimabad
* Government College of Commerce & Economics
* Government College of Technology, Karachi
* Government Dehli College
* Government National College (Karachi)
* Hamdard University
* Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry
* Indus Valley Institute of Art and Architecture
* Institute of Business Administration, Karachi
* Institute of Industrial Electronics Engineering
* Institute of Sindhology
* Iqra University
* Islamia Science College (Karachi)
* Isra University
* Jinnah Medical & Dental College
* Jinnah Polytechnic Institute
* Jinnah Post Graduate Medical Centre
* Jinnah University for Women
* KANUPP Institute of Nuclear Power Engineering
* Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences
* Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
* Mumtaz College (Khairpur)
* Mohammad Ali Jinnah University
* National Academy of Performing Arts
* National University of Sciences and Technology
* NED University of Engineering and Technology
* Ojha Institute of Chest Diseases
* PAF Institute of Aviation Technology
* Pakistan Navy Engineering College
* Pakistan Shipowners' College
* Pakistan Steel Cadet College
* Peoples Medical Girls College Nawabshah
* Provincial Institute of Teachers Education Nawabshah
* Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Sciences and Technology, Nawabshah
* Rana Liaquat Ali Khan Government College of Home Economics
* Rehan College of Education
* Saint Patrick's College, Karachi
* Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai University
* Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology
* Sindh Agriculture University
* Sindh Medical College
* Superior College of Science Hyderabad
* Sindh Muslim Law College
* Sir Syed Government Girls College
* Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology
* St. Joseph's College
* Textile Institute Of Pakistan
* University of Karachi
* University of Sindh
* Usman Institute of Technology
* Ziauddin Medical University

There are six Cadet Colleges also. Admission to state run educational institutions in Pakistan is based on the provincial level. The other three provinces have a merit-based intraprovincial admission policy. Sindh is an exception to this general rule, where admissions are allowed on district domiciles of the candidates and their parents. This arrangement discriminates against meritorious students of Sindhi ethnic background, denying them admission to educational institutes and courses of their choice. Currently there is a lot of resentment of this admission policy. Sindhis are demanding intraprovincial merit-based admissions to state run educational institutes, similar to the one existing in other provinces. This will provide equal opportunities to all students of Sindh. Furthermore, the armed forces have also entered the education sector. They are funded by government and operate like private costly education providers.
[edit] Arts and crafts
Main article: Places of historical interest in Sindh

The skill of the Sindhi craftsman continues to exhibit the 5000-year-old artistic tradition. The long span of time, punctuated by fresh and incessant waves of invaders and settlers, provided various exotic modes of arts which, with the passage of time, got naturalized on the soil. The perfected surface decorations of objects of everyday use - clay, metal, wood, stone or fabrics, with the floral and geometrical designs - can be traced back to the Muslim influence.

Though chiefly an agricultural and pastoral province, Sindh has a reputation for Ajrak, pottery, leatherwork, carpets, textiles, and silk cloth which, in design and finish, are matchless. The chief articles produced are blankets, coarse cotton cloth (soosi) camel fittings, metalwork, lacquered work, enamel, gold and silver embroidery. Hala is famous for pottery and tiles; Boobak for carpets; Nasirpur, Gambat and Thatta for cotton lungees and Khes. The earthenware of Johi, metal vessels of Shikarpur, relli, embroidery, and leather articles of Tharparkar, and lacquered work of Kandhkot are some of the other popular crafts.

The pre-historic finds from different archaeological sites such as Mohenjo-daro, engravings in various graveyards, and the architectural designs of Makli and other tombs provide ample evidence of the people in their literary and musical traditions.

Modern painting and calligraphy have also developed in recent times and some young trained men have taken up commercial art collections.
[edit] Cultural heritage
Main article: Sindhi culture
Probably the floor of first mosque in Subcontinent
Mohenjo-daro was the center of the Indus Valley Civilization 3000 BCE-1700 BCE
Sindhi women collecting water from a reservoir on the way to Mubarak Village

Sindh has a rich heritage of traditional handicraft that has evolved over the centuries. Perhaps the most professed exposition of Sindhi culture is in the handicrafts of Hala, a town some 30 kilometres from Hyderabad. Hala’s artisans are manufacturing high quality and impressively priced wooden handicrafts, textiles, paintings, handmade paper products, blue pottery, etc. Lacquered wood works known as Jandi, painting on wood, tiles, and pottery known as Kashi, hand woven textiles including Khadi, Susi, and Ajrak are synonymous with Sindhi culture preserved in Hala’s handicraft.

The Small and Medium Enterprises Authority (SMEDA) is planning to set up an organization of artisans to empower the community. SMEDA is also publishing a directory of the artisans so that exporters can directly contact them. Hala is the home of a remarkable variety of traditional crafts and traditional handicrafts that carry with them centuries of skill that has woven magic into the motifs and designs used.[citation needed]

Sindh is known the world over for its various handicrafts and arts. The work of Sindhi artisans was sold in ancient markets of Armenia, Baghdad, Basra, Istanbul, Cairo and Samarkand. Referring to the lacquer work on wood locally known as Jandi, T. Posten an English traveller who visited Sindh in early 19th century said, the articles of Hala could be compared with exquisite specimens of China.[citation needed] Technological improvements were gradually introduced such as the spinning wheel charkha and treadle pai-chah in the weavers’ loom, to increase refinement in designing, dyeing and printing by block. Painting process amounted for a much higher volume of output. The refined, lightweight, colourful, washable fabrics from Hala became a luxury for people used to only woollens and linens of the age.

Ajrak has been in Sindh since the birth of its civilization. Blue colour is dominantly used in Ajrak. Also, Sindh was traditionally a large producer of indigo and cotton cloth and both used to be exported to the Middle East. Ajrak is a mark of respect when it is given to an honoured quest, friend or woman. In Sindh, it is most commonly given as a gift at Eid, at weddings, or on other special occasions - like homecoming. Along with Ajrak the Rilli or patchwork sheet, is another Sindhi icon and part of the heritage and culture. Every Sindhi home will have set of Rillis - one for each member of the family and few spare for guests. Rilli is made with different small pieces of different geometrical shapes of cloths sewn together to create intricate designs.

Rilhi is also given as a gift to friends and visitors. It is used as a bedspread as well as a blanket. A beautifully sewn Rilli can also become part of a bride or grooms gifts. Rural women in Sindh are skilful in producing Sindhi caps. Sindhi caps are manufactured commercially on a small scale at New Saeedabad and Hala New. These are in demand with visitors from Karachi and other places and these manufacturing units have very limited production due to lack of marketing facilities.
Portrait of a Hindu girl from Sindh

Portrait of a Muslim girl from Sindh

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Junior in traditional Sindhi dress

Japanese in Sindhi dress
Mir Muhammad Naseer Khan Talpur the last ruler of Sindh

The great Pakistani Sufi singer, Abida Parveen visited Oslo in September 2007

Pride of Sindhi nation Shaheed Pir Sabeghatullah Shah Rashidi ( Soreh Badshah)

Pacco Qillo Fort Round Tower
[edit] The Sindhi language
Main article: Sindhi language

Sindhī (Arabic script: سنڌي, Devanagari script: सिन्धी) is spoken by about 15 million people in the province of Sindh. The largest Sindhi-speaking city is Hyderabad, Pakistan. It is an Indo-European language, related to Kutchi, Gujarati and other Indo-European languages prevalent in the region with substantial Persian, Turkish and Arabic loan words. In Pakistan it is written in a modified Arabic script.
[edit] Places of interest
See also: Places of Historical Interest in Sindh
Ranikot Fort
Gorakh Hill Top
Faiz Mahal, Khairpur

Sindh has numerous tourist sites with the most prominent being the ruins of Mohenjo-daro near the city of Larkana. Islamic architecture is quite prominent in the province with the Jama Masjid in Thatta built by the Mughal emperor Shahjahan and numerous mausoleums dot the province including the very old Shahbaz Qalander mausoleum dedicated to the Iranian-born Sufi and the beautiful mausoleum of Muhammad Ali Jinnah known as the Mazar-e-Quaid in Karachi.

* Aror (ruins of historical city) near Sukkur.
* Chaukandi Tombs, Karachi.
* Forts at Hyderabad and Umarkot
* Gorakh Hill near Dadu.
* Kahu-Jo-Darro near Mirpurkhas.
* Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad.
* Makli Graveyard, Asia's Biggest, Makli, Thatta.
* Mazar-e-Quaid Karachi.
* Minar-e-Mir Masum Shah, Sukkur.
* Mohatta Palace Museum, Karachi.
* Rani Bagh, Hyderabad.
* Ranikot Fort near Sann.
* Ruins of Mohenjo-daro & Museum near Larkana.
* Sadhu Bela Temple near Sukkur.
* Shahjahan Mosque, Thatta.
* Shrine of Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai, Bhit Shah.
* Shrine of Shahbaz Qalander, Sehwan Shairf.
* Sukkur barrage, Sukkur.
* Kot Diji Fort, Kot Diji
* Talpurs' Faiz Mahal Palace, Khairpur (princely state).

[edit] Famous peopleNote: Regarding those personalities who were born before 1947 and lived until after independence, the criteria used for judging which list to put them under is when did this person first make a name for themselves, e.g., Mohammad Ali Jinnah.

Historical personalities

* Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai
* Sachal Sarmast
* Shah Inayatullah
* Sami
* Abdullah Shah Ghazi
* Muhammad Ali Jinnah
* Jam Nizamuddin II
* Jam Ferozudin
* Jam Unar
* Jam Sanjar
* Jam Tamachi
* Sardar Darya Khan
* Mian Adam Shah Kalhoro, Amir
* Yar Mouhammed Kalhoro (Khudabad), Amir
* Main Noor Mohammad Kalhoro, Amir
* Mian Ghuam Shah Kalhoro (Shah Wardi Khan), Amir
* Muhammad Muradyab Khan (Nawab Sarbuland Khan), Amir
* Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur
* Gernal Hosh Mohammad Sheedi
* Mir Ali Murad Talpur
* Mir Allahyar Talpur
* Abdul Raheem Grohirri
* Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi
* Molana Ubaidullah Sindhi
* Maulana deen Muhammad Wafai
* Saaen G.M Sayed

Pre-Independence (pre-1947)

* Fatima Jinnah
* Sir Abdullah Haroon
* Qazi Faiz Mohammad
* Sir Ghulam Hussain Hidayat Ullah
* Allah Bux Soomro
* Raees-Ul-Muhajireen Barrister Jan Muhammad Junejo
* Pir Pagaro
* Aga Khan III
* Seth Edulji Dinshaw
* Elsa Kazi
* Khan Bahadur Ghulam Nabi Kazi
* Khan Bahadur Muhmmad Ayub Khuhro
* Pir Illahi Bakhsh
* Allah Bux Soomro
* Abdul Sattar Pirzada
* Khan Sahib Ali Bux Channa
* Nana Ghulam Ally
* Jamshed Nusserwanjee
* Nadirshaw Edulji Dinshaw
* Khan Bahadur Allah Bux Gabole
* K. R. Malkani
* Molana Din Mohammad Wafai
* Syed Hussain Shah He was Pakistan's first boxer to win any medal in olympic boxing

[edit] Technocrats

* Samshad Akhtar
* Shaikh Ayaz
* N M Uquaili
* A G N Kazi

[edit] Judges and lawyers

* Justice Fakhruddin G Ebrahim
* A K Brohi
* Abdul Hafeez Pirzada
* Justice Tufail Ali Abdul Rehman Zubedi
* Barrister Hassanally A. Rahman Zubedi
* Justice Abdul Hafeez Memon
* Justice Rana Bhagwandas
* Justice Z.A. Channa
* Justice Tufail Ali Abdul Rehman
* Justice Abdul Kadir Sheikh
* Justice Sajjad Ali Shah
* Justice Mamoon Kazi

[edit] Post independence

* Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
* Benazir Bhutto
* Muhammad Khan Junejo
* Rasool Bux Palijo
* Miskeen Jahan Khan Khoso
* Air Marshal M Azim Daudpota
* Aftab Shaban Mirani
* Yusuf Haroon
* Murtaza Bhutto

Scholars

* Abul Hassan (First ever translation of Holy Quran made from Arabic to Sindhi Language
* Molana Ubaidullah Sindhi
* Hafiz-ul-milat Hafiz Muhammad Siddique Of Bhar Chandi
* Makhdum Muhammad Hashim Thatwi
* Moalana Taj Mohammad Amrothi
* Allama Ghulam Mustafa Qasmi
* Shams-ul-Ulama Mirza Kalich Baig
* Raees-Ul-Muhajireen Barrister Jan Muhammad Junejo
* Shamsul Ulema Dr Umar Bin Muhammad Daudpota
* Allama Ali Khan Abro
* Maulana deen Muhammad Wafai
* Dr. Ghulam Ali Allana
* Allama I. I. Kazi
* Atta Mohammad Hami
* Allama Ali Sher Hydri
* Dr Mubarak Ali
* Makhdoom Bilawal
* Shaikh Mubarak Sindhi
* Makhdoom Muhammad Zaman Talibul Mola

Entertainment

* Abida Parveen
* Mohammed Ali
* Waheed Murad
* Allan Faqir
* Sarmad Sindhi
* Anwar Maqsood
* Moin Akhtar
* Bushra Ansari
* Talat Hussain
* Ahmed Mughal
* Ashiq Nizamani
* Govind Nihalani
* Fozia Soomro
* Jalal Chandio
* Ramesh Sippy
* Mai Bhaggi
* Faisal Malik
* Waqar Zaka
* Professor Ram Panjwani
* Mohammad Ali Charles(Dino)
* Saifudin A. Channa

Authors

* Muhammad Ibrahim Joyo
* Hassam-ud-Din Rashidi
* Dr. Umar Bin Muhammad Daudpota
* Mirza Qalich Baig
* Allama I. I. Kazi
* Qazi Faiz Mohammad
* Nabi Bux Khan Baloch
* Elsa Kazi
* Ali Muhammad Rashidi
* Bedil Masroor
* Jamal Abro
* G.M. Syed
* Agha Salim
* Pir Ali Muhammad Shah Rashidi
* Professor Amina Khamisani-Channa
* Anwar Pirzado
* Kalyan Advani

Poets

* Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai
* Sachal Sarmast
* Shaikh Ayaz
* Abdul-Qādir Bēdil
* Shah Abdul Karim Bulri
* Shah Inayatullah
* Imdad Hussaini
* Elsa Kazi
* Anwar Pirzado
* Minyoon Shah Inayat
* Behzad Lakhnawi
* Dadan Fakeer
* Adal Soomro
* Ayaz Gul

History of South India

2009-10-22T22:22:00.000-07:00

"South Indian" redirects here. For other uses, see South Indian (disambiguation).

South India
View of Pechiparai Dam in Kanyakumari
View of Pechiparai Dam in Kanyakumari

Political Map of South India
Thumbnail map of India with South India highlighted
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
Area 635,780 km²
States and territories Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Lakshadweep*
Most populous cities (2008) Chennai, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Hyderabad, Madurai, Visakhapatnam
Official languages Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, English, French‡
Population 233,000,000
Population density 337/km²
Birth rate 20.4
Death rate 7.7
Infant mortality rate 48.4
Non-numbered Footnotes:[show]
* Lakshadweep and Pondicherry are Union territories of India and under the direct command of the President of India
‡ Urdu is an official language of Andhra Pradesh while French and English are official languages of Pondicherry. See also Official languages of India.

South India, also known as the Dravida in the Indian anthem[1], is the area encompassing India's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Lakshadweep and Pondicherry, occupying 19.31% of area. South India lies in the peninsular Deccan Plateau and is bounded by the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal in the west, south and east respectively. The geography of the region is diverse, encompassing two mountain ranges — the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats and a plateau heartland. Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri rivers are important non-perennial sources of water. Inhabitants of South India are referred to as South Indians. A majority of South Indians speak one of the five Dravidian languages — Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu and Tulu. During its history, a number of dynastic kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history and cultures of modern nation-states such as Sri Lanka,Singapore, Philippines,Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia. The region was colonised by Britain and gradually incorporated into the British Empire.

After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence, the economies of South Indian states have registered higher than national average decadal growth over the past three decades. While South Indian states have improved in some socio-economic metrices,[2][3] economic disparity, illiteracy and poverty continue to affect the region much like the rest of the country. Agriculture is the single largest contributor to the regional net domestic product, while Information technology (IT) is a rapidly growing industry. Literary and architectural styles, evolved over two thousand years, differ from other parts of the country. Politics in South India is dominated by smaller regional political parties rather than by national political parties.

South India ranks the highest in terms of social and economic development in areas such as fertility rate and infrastructure; the fertility rate of South India is 1.9, the lowest of all regions in India.[4]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
* 3 Geography
* 4 Flora and fauna
* 5 Subdivisions
* 6 Demographics
* 7 Economy
* 8 Politics
* 9 Culture and heritage
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 References and bibliography
* 13 External links

[edit] Etymology

Apart from the English language terms South India and Peninsular India, southern India has been known by several other historic names. Adi Shankara coined the name Dravida in the 8th century as he called himself Dravida Shishu, meaning a child from South India (see etymology of Dravida). The term Deccan, an Anglicized form of the word "Dakhhin" which is a derived from the word dakshina meaning south, refers only to the area covered by the Deccan Plateau, a volcanic plateau that covers most of peninsular India excluding the coastal areas.[5] The Carnatic is an English term derived from "Karnād" or "Karunād", meaning high country. The terms Karnād and Carnatic have long overgrown particular association with the plateau and refer to all of South India, including the coasts, the western of which is named the Carnatic coast. The name Karnātaka is derived from the same root.[6]
[edit] History
Main article: History of South India
See also: Middle kingdoms of India and History of India
Hoysala Empire sculptural articulation in Belur.

Carbon dating on ash mounds associated with neolithic cultures in Southern India date back to 8000 BCE. Artefacts such as ground stone axes, and minor copper objects have been found in the region. Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE, iron technology spread through the region; however, there does not appear to be a fully developed Bronze Age preceding the Iron Age in South India.[7] South India was a crossroads of the ancient world, linking the Mediterranean and the Far East. The southern coastline from Karwar to Kodungallur was the most important trading shore in the Indian subcontinent resulting in intermingling between locals and traders.[8] The South Indian coast of Malabar and the Tamil people of the Sangam age traded with the Graeco-Roman world. They were in contact with the Phoenicians, Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, Jews, and Chinese.[9]

There were several significant rulers and dynasties in southern Indian history. Dynasties such as the Satavahanas of Amaravati, Kadambas of Banavasi, Western Ganga Dynasty, Chalukya dynasty of Badami, Western Chalukyas, Eastern Chalukya, Cheras, Cholas, Hoysalas, Kakatiya dynasty, Pallavas, Pandyas, and Rashtrakutas of Manyaketha have ruled over South India. The late medieval period saw the rise of Muslim power in South India. The defeat of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal by Tughlaq forces of the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 CE heralded a new chapter in South Indian history. The struggle of the period was between the Bahmani Sultanate based in Gulbarga (and later, Bidar) and the Vijayanagara Empire with its capital in Vijayanagara in modern Hampi.

With the fall of Vijayanagara and the break-up of the Bahmani sultanate, the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda and Hyderabad became the dominant power in the region. Qutb Shahi dominance of the region continued until the middle of the seventeenth century, when the Mughals under Aurangzeb made determined inroads into the Deccan. Following Aurangzeb’s death, Mughal power weakened, and South Indian rulers gained autonomy from Delhi. The Wodeyar kingdom of Mysore, the Asaf Jahis of Hyderabad, and Marathas all gained power.
Charminar at Hyderabad

In the middle of the eighteenth century, the French and the British initiated a protracted struggle for military control of South India. Shifting alliances between the two European powers and the local powers marked the period with mercenary armies being employed by all sides causing general anarchy in South India. As the British consolidated power over much of India in the late 1850s, they allowed the French to retain their possessions over Pondicherry. The four Anglo-Mysore wars and the three Anglo-Maratha Wars saw Mysore, Pune and Hyderabad allying themselves with the British or the French. South India during the British colonial rule was divided into the Madras Presidency and Hyderabad, Mysore, Thiruvithamcoore (also known as Travancore), Kochi (also known as Cochin or Perumpadapu Swaroopam), Vizianagaram and a number of other minor princely states. British Residents were stationed in the capitals of the important states to supervise and report on the activities of the rulers.

The States Reorganisation Act (1956) created new states (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala) and reorganised modern-day Tamil Nadu along linguistic lines. Additionally, the enclaves of French India, which were ceded to India in the 1950s, were constituted into the union territory of Pondicherry.
[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of South India
Sivasamudram Falls on the Kaveri River near Mysore.

South India is a peninsula in the shape of a vast inverted triangle, bounded on the west by the Arabian Sea, on the east by the Bay of Bengal and on the north by the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The Narmada flows westwards in the depression between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The Satpura ranges define the northern spur of the Deccan plateau. The Western Ghats, along the western coast, mark another boundary of the plateau. The narrow strip of verdant land between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is the Konkan region. The Western Ghats continue south, forming the Malenadu (Canara) region along the Karnataka coast, and terminate at the Nilgiri mountains, an inward (easterly) extension of the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris run in a crescent approximately along the borders of Tamil Nadu with northern Kerala and Karnataka, encompassing the Palakkad and Wayanad hills, and the Satyamangalam ranges, and extending on to the relatively low-lying hills of the Eastern Ghats, on the western portion of the Tamil Nadu - Andhra Pradesh border. The Tirupati and Annamalai hills form part of this range. The low lying coral islands of Lakshadweep are off the south-western coast of India. Sri Lanka lies off the south-eastern coast, separated from India by the Palk Strait and the chain of low sandbars and islands known as Rama's Bridge. The Andaman and Nicobar islands lie far off the eastern coast of India, near the Tenasserim coast of Burma. The southernmost tip of mainland India is at Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) on the Indian Ocean.

The Deccan plateau is the vast elevated region bound by the C-shape defined by all these mountain ranges. No major elevations border the plateau to the east, and it slopes gently from the Western Ghats to the eastern coast. The plateau is watered by the east flowing Godavari and Krishna rivers. The other major rivers of the Deccan plateau are the Pennar and the Tungabhadra, a major tributary of the Krishna. The three major river deltas of South India, the Kaveri, the Godavari and the Krishna, are located along the Bay of Bengal. These areas constitute the rice bowls of South India.

The region has a very tropical climate with the monsoons playing a major part. The South - West Monsoon accounts for most of the rainfall in the region and much of it falls from about June to October. The south-west monsoon starts from Kerala during June and moves up towards the northern parts of India. Tamil Nadu and southeast Andhra Pradesh receive rains from the North - East Monsoon from about November to February. Much of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka has a distinct dry season from about October - May when there is not much rainfall. This region also experiences cooler nights from October to March while the days are pleasantly warm. In the northern parts of the region temperatures can fall below 10 degrees Celsius on occasions at night during this time. Days are very hot from March to June when temps can go over 40 degrees. The southern coastal region has an average minimum temperature of 20 degrees and maximum of 35 degrees.
[edit] Flora and fauna
Main articles: Wildlife of Karnataka, Wildlife of Tamil Nadu, and Wildlife of Kerala
Bangaram Island in the union territory of Lakshadweep.

There is a wide diversity of plants and animals in South India, resulting from its varied climates and geography. Deciduous forests are found along the Western Ghats while tropical dry forests and scrub lands Deccan thorn scrub forests are common in the interior Deccan plateau. The southern Western Ghats have high altitude rain forests called the South Western Ghats montane rain forests. The Malabar Coast moist forests are found on the coastal plains.[10] The Western Ghats itself is a biodiversity hotspot.[11]

Some of India's famous protected areas are found in South India. These include Project Tiger reserves Periyar National Park, Kalakad - Mundanthurai and Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve. Important ecological regions of South India are the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, located at the conjunction of the borders of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the Nilgiri Hills including Mudumalai National Park, Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park Silent Valley National Park, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and Nugu Wildlife Sanctuary and the Anamalai Hills including the Eravikulam National Park, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjacentThe Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park of the Western Ghats. Important bird sanctuaries including Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary, Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary, Neelapattu Sanctuary and Pulicat Sanctuary are home to numerous migratory and local birds. Other protected ecological sites include the backwaters like the Pulicut Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Pitchavarum in Tamil Nadu and the famed backwaters of Kerala formed by the Vembanad Lake, the Ashtamudi Lake and the Kayamkulam Lake.

Banana, Musaparadisiaca and Moringa oleifera are found extensively in Lakshadweep while coconut plantations provide economic support to the islands. Lashadweep has been declared a bird sanctuary by the Wildlife Institute of India.[12] Crabs, chiefly hermit crabs, parrot fish and butterfly fish are also found on the islands.
[edit] Subdivisions
Map of South Indian states prior to the States Reorganisation Act (1956).

South India consists of the four southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the Lakshadweep archipelago. Together with Pondicherry, each South Indian state has an elected state government, while the Lakshadweep islands are centrally administered by the President of India. The modern states of South India were created as a result of the States Reorganisation Act[13] (1956), which established states and union territories based on linguistic boundaries. As a result of this act:

* Andhra Pradesh was formed with the transfer of all districts from Hyderabad State and some taluks from Raichur, Bidar, and Gulbarga to Andhra State,
* Kerala was created with the transfer of Malayalam-dominated territories from Madras State, Kasaragod taluk and Malabar district to unapportioned districts of Travancore-Cochin State,
* Mysore State was formed with the transfer of Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwad and Canara districts from Bombay State, Kollegal taluk of Coimbatore from Madras State, unapportioned taluks of Raichur, Bidar and Gulbarga from Hyderabad State and all territories of Coorg to the erstwhile Kingdom of Mysore,
* Madras State was reorganised with the transfer to some talkus from Travancore-Cochin to form the districts of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli,
* Pondicherry was formed out of the territories that were under the control of France,
* Lakshadweep was formed out of the archipelago under the Malabar district of Madras State.

Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1968, while Mysore State was renamed Karnataka in 1973.

Each subregion is further divided into districts; the region of South India has over 100 districts. Each state is headed by a Governor, who is a direct appointee of the President of India, while the Chief Minister is the elected head of the state government and represents the states ruling party or coalition (the role of the Governor is largely ceremonial).
[edit] Demographics
Main article: Dravidian languages

Proto-Dravidian

Proto South-Dravidian

Proto Central Dravidian

Proto Tamil-Kannada

Proto Telugu

Proto Tamil-Toda

Proto Kannada

Proto Telugu

Proto Tamil-Kodagu

Kannada

Telugu

Proto Tamil-Malayalam

Proto Tamil

Malayalam

Tamil
This tree diagram depicts the genealogy of the primary Dravidian languages spoken
in South India.

The estimated population of South India is 233 million.[14] The largest linguistic groups in South India include the Telugus, Tamils, Kannadigas, Malayalis, Tuluvas, Kodavas and Konkanis. About 83% of South Indians follow Hinduism. Islam has the second-highest number of followers in the region, with 11%, while 5% follow Christianity.

The average literacy rate of South India is approximately 73%, considerably higher than the Indian national average of 60%.[15] Kerala leads the nation with a literacy rate of 91%. The sex ratio in South India is fairly equable at 997; Kerala is the only state in India with a favourable sex ratio.[14] The population density of the region is approximately 463. Scheduled Castes and Tribes form 18% of the population of the region. Agriculture is the major employer in the region — 47.5% of the population is involved in agrarian activities. About 60% of the population lives in permanent housing structures. 47.8% of South India has access to tap water. Wells and springs are other major forms of water supply.

The languages of South India are the Dravidian represented by Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu, besides Gondi and other minor dialects, and the Austro-Asiatic by the Munda languages.[16] South India's predominant language family is Dravidian, a family of approximately seventy-three languages[17] spoken in South Asia.[18] The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 divided states in India along linguistic lines and led to the creation of separate states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu in areas where Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil respectively were dominant.

In the 2001 Census, Telugu had the third largest base of native speakers in India (74 million), after Hindi and Bengali and was awarded the status of classical language in 2008 [1] . Tamil was accorded the status of classical language by the Government of India in 2002 and had about 60 million native speakers. Kannada has 38 million and was awarded the status of classical language in 2008 [2], while Malayalam had 33 million native speakers.[19] Each of these languages is listed as an official language of India, per the Official Languages Act (1963).

Urdu is spoken by over half of the 25 million Muslims in southern India.[19][20] South Indian Muslims in some regions of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka speak a dialect of Urdu called Dakhni, while some in the Dakshina Kannada region of Karnataka and regions in Kerala speak Beary bashe.[21] Both Dakhni and Beary bashe are influenced by other South Indian languages.[19] Tulu, a Dravidian language prevalent in coastal Kerala and Karnataka, is spoken by about 1.5 million people in the region, while Konkani, an Indo-Aryan language, is spoken by over half a million people in the region. English is also widely spoken in urban areas of South India.[22]
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of South India
[hide]Economic and demographic indicators [23]
Parameter South India National
Per capita net state domestic product (SDP) Rs. 25,027.75 (US$ 515.57) Rs. 23,222 (US$ 478.37)
Percentage share in total FDI approved (1993-2003) 5.48 NA
Average annual growth of SDP 5.6 5.6
Percentage of population below poverty line 17.41 26.10
Percentage of urban population 32.82 27.81
Percentage of households with electricity 89.32 67.9
Literacy rate 72.87 61 [24]

India's economy after independence in 1947 conformed to a socialist framework, with strict governmental control over private sector participation, foreign trade and foreign direct investment (FDI). Through 1960-1990, South Indian economies experienced mixed economic growth. In the 1960s, Karnataka and Kerala achieved above average economic growth, while Andhra Pradesh's economy declined during this period. Similarly, Kerala experienced economic decline in the 1970s while the economies of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu consistently exceeded national average growth rates after 1970. Karnataka experienced the highest positive differential in economic growth after the liberalisation of the Indian economy in 1991, while Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka were noted by some to be more reform-oriented in terms of economic policy when compared to other Indian states.[25]

Over 48% of South India's population is engaged in agriculture, which is largely dependent on seasonal monsoons[14] Some of the main crops cultivated in South India include paddy, sorghum, pearl millet, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, chilli, and ragi. Areca, coffee, tea, vanilla, rubber, pepper, tapioca, and cardamom are cultivated on the hills, while coconut grows in abundance in coastal areas. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of rice in India,[26] while Karnataka produces 70% of India's coffee. Frequent droughts in northern Karnataka, Rayalaseema and Telangana have left farmers debt-ridden, forcing them to sell their livestock and sometimes even to commit suicide.[27] The region also suffers from water scarcity, especially during summer. Since the liberalisation of the Indian economy, South India has seen a decrease in revenue from agriculture and agriculture related services [28].

Traditionally, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka have been home to large, public sector industries (referred to as Public Sector Undertakings, or PSUs), with both states posting above average growth rates in this sector following economic liberalisation.[28] Chennai, The Detroit of South Asia accounts for about 35% of India's overall automotive components[29] while the registered headquarters of 42% of all Central PSUs in South India are located in Karnataka.[30] Additionally, the growth of information technology (IT) hubs in the region have spurred economic growth and attracted foreign investments and job seekers from other parts of the country. Bangalore, the Silicon Valley of India, is India's IT hub, and is home to over 200 software companies. In fiscal 2006-2007, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka attracted the third and fourth highest total FDI approvals in India, respectively, totalling to over Rs 41,700 crore (US$ 8.59 billion) [31] Software exports from South India grossed over Rs 64,000 crore (US$ 13.18 billion) in fiscal 2005-06.[32]

Though Kerala lags behind many of the Indian states in terms of industrialisation, it ranks first in the country in terms of quality of life.[33]
[edit] Politics
Main article: Politics in South India
A Left Democratic Front rally in Kerala.
Election poster of AIADMK founder and former chief minister of Tamil Nadu MG Ramachandran.

Politics in South India is dominated by a mix of regional parties and larger national political parties like the Congress (INC), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). With the exclusion of Karnataka, each state has at least two parties dominating politics in that state.[citation needed]

Pre-independence politics in the Madras Presidency was dominated by the Justice Party and the INC. Periyar Ramasami who started the Dravidian movement was elected leader of the Justice Party in 1938 and in 1944 renamed it to Dravidar Kazhagam, with its initial aim being the secession of Dravida Nadu from the rest of India on independence.[34] Following independence, Periyar strongly believed that the party should not participate in elections in the newly created India, something his closest followers disagreed with. In 1948, C. N. Annadurai, a follower of Periyar and a Joint Secretary of Dravidar Kazhagam parted ways with Periyar to form the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam political party.[34] INC's political influence over Tamil Nadu gave way to the rise of the DMK which formed its first government in 1968 and again in 1978. The following year, a split in the DMK resulted in the formation of the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), lead by M. G. Ramachandran. Together, the AIADMK and the DMK currently command a 60% share in Tamil Nadu state elections.

The main facets of state politics in Tamil Nadu included language — the distinction between Tamil and non-Tamil speakers was an important tool used by the DMK in the 1960s and caste — such as the Self-respect Movement. The imposition of Hindi on non-Hindi speaking areas of India has often been a contentious issue in Tamil Nadu. In January-February 1965, large scale anti-Hindi agitations, a cause championed by the DMK,[35] occurred in Tamil Nadu.

In 1982, the establishment of the Telugu Desam Party in Andhra Pradesh by former Telugu actor Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao (NTR) broke the dominance of the INC in Andhra Pradesh politics. NTR successfully challenged the INC's supremacy in the state and his party was voted into power a total of four times. In 1996, a year after winning the state assembly election by a landslide, a dispute between NTR, his wife Lakshmi Parvati and his immediate family resulted in a split in the TDP. Concerned over undue influence over NTR and his policies, the bulk of the party favoured the family under the leadership of NTR's son-in-law, N Chandrababu Naidu, who later became Chief Minister of the state. Naidu was regarded as a visionary who promoted the growth of information technology in the state. On August 26, 2008 Chiranjeevi, the leading actor of the Telugu film industry launched a new party at Tirupathi, called Prajarajyam. He said he would be constesting for the elections scheduled in the next year.

The Janata Dal has been far more successful in Karnataka than it has been in national politics. National political parties such as the BJP and INC have experienced more comparative success in Karnataka than they have in other states of South India. Karnataka's political environment is dominated by two rival caste groups — the Vokkaligas and the Lingayats.[36] Ramakrishna Hegde played an integral part in the ascent of the Janata Dal into the national foray in the late 1980s. However, it was his political rival H. D. Deve Gowda, then the Chief Minister of Karnataka, who later went on to become the Prime Minister of India.

Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDF, led by the Indian National Congress) and the Left Democratic Front (LDF, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist)). Kerala numbers among India's most left-wing states. An interesting phenomenon of Kerala politics is the alternate election of Congress and the Communists to power.
[edit] Culture and heritage
Main article: South Indian culture
A Tamil couple c. 1945; the wife is wearing a madisara sari.
Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, A famous temple located in Tirupati, Andra Pradesh.

According to some experts, the weltanschauung of South Indians is essentially the celebration of the eternal universe through the celebration of the beauty of the body, and motherhood, which is exemplified through their dance, clothing, and sculptures.[37] South Indian women traditionally wear the Saree while the men wear a type of sarong, which could be either a white pancha or a colourful lungi with typical batik patterns.

Rice is the staple diet, while fish is an integral component of coastal South Indian meals. Coconut is an important ingredient in Kerala whereas Andhra Pradesh cuisine is characterized by pickles and spicy curries. Hyderabadi cuisine a legacy of the past, is popular for its Biryani. Dosa, Idli, Uttapam are popular throughout the region. There are large coffee estates in southern Karnataka and parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

The music of South India is known as Carnatic music, which includes rhythmic and structured music by composers like Purandara Dasa, Kanaka Dasa, Tyagaraja, Annamacharya, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Shyama Shastri, Subbaraya Shastri, Mysore Vasudevachar and Swathi Thirunal. The contemporary singer Dr. K. J. Yesudas is a cultural ambassador of Carnatic music.Thiruvarur Bakthavathsalam is a cultural ambassador of carnatic instrumentals. The motion picture industry has emerged as an important platform in South India, over the years portraying the cultural changes, trends, aspirations and developments experienced by its people. Some movie classics like Nammukku paarkkaan munthiri thoppukal (1986) by Padmarajan, Adi Shankara (1984) by director G V Iyer, and Perumthachan (1990) by Ajayan have gained worldwide acclaim. South India is home to several distinct dance forms — the Koodiyattam, Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Yakshagana, Theyyam, Ottamthullal, Oppana, Kerala Natanam and Mohiniaattam.

South India has an independent literary tradition going back over 2500 years. The first known literature of South India are the poetic Sangams, which were written in Tamil between 2500 to 2100 years ago. The 850 CE Kannada classic Kavirajamarga written by King Amoghavarsha I makes references to Kannada literature of King Durvinita in the early sixth century CE. Tamil Buddhist commentators of the tenth century CE Nemrinatham make references to Kannada literature of the fourth century CE. Distinct Malayalam and Telugu literary traditions developed in the following centuries.

South India has two distinct styles of rock architecture, the pure dravida style of Tamil Nadu and the Vesara style (also called Karnata dravida style) present in Karnataka. The inspirational temple sculptures of Hampi, Badami, Bhattiprolu, Pattadakal, Aihole, Belur, Halebidu, Lakkundi, Shravanabelagola, Mahabalipuram, Tanjore, Madurai and the mural paintings of Travancore and Lepakshi temples, also stand as a testament to South Indian culture. The paintings of Raja Ravi Varma are considered classic renditions of many a scenes of South Indian life and mythology.Murudeshwara, a town in Uttar Kannada district is known for the world's tallest Shiva statue.

The main spiritual traditions of South India include both Shaivite and Vaishnavite branches of Hinduism, although Buddhist and Jain philosophies had been influential several centuries earlier. Shravanabelagola in Karnataka is a popular pilgrimage center for Jains. Ayyavazhi is spread significantly across the southernmost parts of South India.[38] Its followers are more densely populated in South Tamil Nadu[39] and Kerala.[40] There is a large Muslim community in South India, particularly in the Malabar coast, which can trace its roots to the ancient maritime trade between Kerala and Omanis and other Arabs. Christianity has flourished in coastal South India from the times of St. Thomas the Apostle who is believed to have come to Kerala and established the Syrian Christian tradition today called as Saint Thomas Christians or Nasranis.[41] Kerala is also home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world who are supposed to have arrived in the Malabar coast during the time of King Solomon.[42] The oldest surviving Jewish synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations is the Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, Kerala.

Punjab (India)

2009-10-22T22:21:00.000-07:00

This article is about the Indian state of Punjab. For other usages, see Punjab.
Punjab
Land of Five Rivers
Map of India showing location of Punjab
Location of Punjab in India
Location of Punjab
Chandigarh
Location of Punjab in India
Country India
District(s) 20
Established 1956-11-01
Capital Chandigarh
Largest city Ludhiana
Governor Sunith Francis Rodrigues
Chief Minister Parkash Singh Badal
Legislature (seats) Unicameral (117 Punjab MLAs)
Population
• Density 24,289,296 (15th)
• 482 /km2 (1,248 /sq mi)
Language(s) Punjabi
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
Area 50,362 km2 (19,445 sq mi)
ISO 3166-2 IN-PB
Punjab Portal: Punjab
Website http://punjabgovt.nic.in/
Seal of Punjab

Coordinates: 30°44′N 76°47′E / 30.73°N 76.78°E / 30.73; 76.78

Punjab (Punjabi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Hindi: पंजाब) is a state in northwest India. The Indian state borders the Pakistani province of Punjab to the west, Jammu and Kashmir to the north, Himachal Pradesh to the northeast, Haryana to the south and southeast and Rajasthan to the southwest. The total area of the state is 50,362 square kilometres (19,445 square miles). The population is 24,289,296 (2000). Punjab's capital is Chandigarh, which is administered separately as a Union Territory since it is also the capital of neighbouring Haryana. Other major cities of Punjab include Mohali, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Patiala and Jalandhar.

The Indian Punjab historically forms a part of the larger Punjab region, which includes the Pakistani province of Punjab and the North-West Frontier Province, the Indian states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, parts of Jammu and Kashmir and the Union Territory of Chandigarh, which boasts the highest per capita income and Human Development Index in India.[1]. Indian Punjab was trifurcated in the year 1966 leading to the formation of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh.

Agriculture is the largest industry in Punjab, it is the largest single provider of wheat to India. Others major industries include the manufacture of scientific instruments, electrical goods, financial services, machine tools, textiles, sewing machines, sports goods, starch, tourism, fertilizers, bicycles, garments, and the processing of pine oil and sugar. Punjab is considered to have the best infrastructure in India [2], this includes road, rail, air and river transport links that are extensive throughout the region. Punjab also has the lowest poverty rate in India at 6.16% (1999-2000 figures), and has won the best state performance award[3], based on statistical data compiled by the Indian Government. According to the India State Hunger Index 2008, Punjab has the lowest level of hunger in India.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Geography
o 2.1 Climate
* 3 History
o 3.1 Present issues
* 4 Flora and Fauna
* 5 Punjabi News Papers
* 6 Demographics
* 7 Education
* 8 Economy
* 9 Districts
* 10 Government and politics
* 11 Tourism
* 12 Culture
o 12.1 Famous people
o 12.2 Twin Punjabi Associations
* 13 See also
* 14 References
* 15 External links

[edit] Etymology

The word "Punjab" is a combination of the Sanskrit words panj Five, and āb Water, giving the literal meaning of the "Land of Five Rivers". The five rivers after which Punjab is named are the Beas, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej.
[edit] Geography
The River Sutlej, one of the five rivers that give Punjab its name from Rampur ca. 1857.
A view of Ropar Wetland
Typical Punjabi Landscape in April

Punjab extends from the latitudes 29.30° North to 32.32° North and longitudes 73.55° East to 76.50° East.[4] It covers a geographical area of 50,362 km2 which is 1.54 % of country’s total geographical area.[5]

Due to the presence of a large number of rivers, most of the Punjab is a fertile plain. The southeast region of the state is semi-arid and gradually presents a desert landscape. A belt of undulating hills extends along the northeastern part of the state at the foot of the Himalayas.

Most of the part of the state is an alluvial plain,which is irrigated by extensive canal system.[6] Punjab's arid southern border edges on the Thar, or Great Indian, Desert. The Siwalik Range rises sharply in the north of the state.

The soil characteristics are influenced to a very limited extent by the topography, vegetation and parent rock. The variation in soil profile characteristics are much more pronounced because of the regional climatic differences.

Punjab is divided into three distinct regions on the basis of soil types. The regions are:

1. South-Western Punjab
2. Central Punjab
3. Eastern Punjab

Punjab falls under seismic zones II, III, and IV. Zones II and III are referred to as Low Damage Risk Zone while zone IV referred to as high damage risk zone.[5]
[edit] Climate

Punjab region temperature range from -2° to 40°C (MIN/MAX), but can reach 47°C (117°F) in summer and can touch down to -5°C in winter.

Climatically, Punjab has three major seasons as under:[6]

* Hot weather (April to June) when temperature rises as high as 110F.

* Rainy season (July to September). Average rainfall annual ranges between 96 cms sub-mountain region and 46 cms in the plains.

* Cold weather (October to March). Temperature goes down as low as 40F.

[edit] History
Main article: History of the Punjab
Undivided Punjab
Maharaja Ranjit Singh the ruler of Punjab ca. 1835-40.
Akbar the Mughal ruler was crowned in Gurdaspur district of Punjab
Maharaja Duleep Singh the last sikh Maharaja of Punjab
The golden throne of Punjab

The Indian state of Punjab was created in 1947, when the Partition of India split the former Raj province of Punjab between India and West Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became West Pakistan's Punjab Province; the mostly Sikh eastern part became India's Punjab state. Many Sikhs and Hindus lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and so the partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence.[7] Several small Punjabi princely states, including Patiala, also became part of India. In 1950, two separate states were created; Punjab included of the former Raj province of Punjab, while the princely states were combined into a new state, the Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU). PEPSU consisted of the princely states of Patiala, Nabha, Jind, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot and Kalsia. Himachal Pradesh was created as a union territory from several princely states and Kangra district. In 1956, PEPSU was merged into Punjab state, and several northern districts of Punjab in the Himalayas were added to Himachal Pradesh.

The capital of the undivided Punjab province, Lahore, ended up in West Pakistan after partition, so a new capital for Indian Punjab state was built at Chandigarh. On November 1, 1966, the mostly Hindu southeastern half of Punjab became a separate state, Haryana. Chandigarh was on the border between the two states, and became a separate union territory which serves as the capital of both Punjab and Haryana. Chandigarh was due to transfer to Punjab alone in 1986, but the transfer has been delayed pending an agreement on which parts of the Hindi speaking areas of Abohar and Fazilka, currently part of Firozpur District of Punjab, should be transferred to Haryana in exchange.

During the 1970s, the Green Revolution brought increased economic prosperity for the Sikh community in Punjab, mainly due to Pratap Singh Kairon, the late Sikh leader. However, a growing polarisation between the Indian National Congress led Indian government and the main political party of the Sikhs, the Shiromani Akali Dal, began to widen during the 1970s. The hostility and bitterness arose from what was widely seen by the Sikhs as increasing alienation, centralization and discriminatory attitudes towards Punjab by the Government of India. This prompted the Shiromani Akali Dal to unanimously pass the Anandpur Sahib Resolution which among other things called for granting maximum autonomy for the Punjab and other states and limiting the role and powers of the Central Government.

Discord had been developing after the rejection of the Anandpur Sahib Resolution. A small section of Sikhs demanded an independent state of Khalistan. A number of militants took to targeting officials and people opposed to their point of view which included a number of Sikhs. Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale along with his supporters sought shelter inside the Akal Takht. Fearing an attack on the Harimandir Sahib, Bhindranwale, with help from Shabeg Singh heavily fortified the temple. The Indian army finally assaulted the Golden Temple to take out armed militants in June, 1984. However, the operation, Operation Bluestar was poorly planned and coordinated, leading to heavy military and civilian casualties.

As a result, the situation in Punjab deteriorated into anarchy with a rise in radicalised militancy. By the early 1990s, after many years of violence across Punjab, the militants' struggle for Khalistan had lost much of the sympathy given after the assault on the sacred Golden Temple, it had previously had from some Punjabi Sikhs and what little armed resistance remained was eliminated and forced underground. In the following years there was concern over alleged human rights abuses conducted by the central and state government against radical Sikhs, and many human rights organisations were not allowed in the Punjab at the time.[8]

The Indian BJP former leader stated that the Congress Party governments have been involved in creating terrorism in the Punjab. Recently, BJP national president Lal Krishna Advani, stated that it was his party which pressured Sikh Extremists to take a stand against the government.[9] The policy to help the Congress Party by creating militants and moderates backfired resulting in the deaths of thousands of innocent people [10]. Two notable attacks in Punjab were in 1991 and 1987, both attacks involving militants [11][12].

Punjab's economy was acutely affected in the 1980s and early 1990s. However in recent times, there have been serious attempts by the Central Government to diminish resentment and strong feelings of Punjabis over the issue. Punjab's economy is now on the path to recovery. However, corruption and violence continues to hamper the state.
[edit] Present issues

In recent times, there is growing concern in the state about the immigration of labourers from other Indian states such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Around 10% of Punjab's population is now made up of migrants from these states. The Sikhs are concerned that they will soon become a minority in the state, and allege that the unchecked immigration is encouraged by the government.[13] The pro-Khalistan organization Dal Khalsa (International) has blamed the problems like rising crime rate and unemployment on immigration. On the other hand the leaders like Tarsem Jodha have stated that immigration is vital to Punjab's economy since the landlords of Punjab have always relied on immigrants for labour.[13]

In the last few decades, the disputes between the Jat and the Dalit castes have caused much violence in Punjab.[13] In the Talhan riots, Dalit Sikhs were brutally suppressed by Jats allegedly with the police help over the management of the local Gurdwara. The daughter of the Dalit activist Bant Singh was raped by a group of Jats, and he was beaten up leading to amputation of his limbs.[13] Dera Sacha Sauda claims to be a pro-Dalit organization, but Jat Sikhs regard it as a conspiracy aimed at diluting the Sikh identity.[14] There have been many cases of violence between the two groups. Another example is the breakaway sect of a godman called Baba Piara Singh Bhaniarawala. The followers of Bhaniarwala are mostly Dalits who claim to be Sikhs. However, mainstream Sikhs have accused him of modifying the Guru Granth Sahib, the sacred book of the Sikhs. They have accused him of blasphemy, alleging that his 2,400-page "Bhavsagar Samundar Amar Bani" contains blasphemous references to Sikhism.

According to the World Drug Report released by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in 2007, Punjab is the World’s No 1 transit point for opium. According to the Akali leader Late Captain Kanwaljeet Singh, Punjab finds itself bypassed as neighbouring states are prospering due to the services book, while industrialisation in Punjab has not happened in a planned manner due to “a crucial decade lost in militancy.”[13]
[edit] Flora and Fauna
State Symbols of Punjab State language Punjabi Amrita Pritam (1919-2005).jpg
State animal Black Buck Blackbuc001.jpg
State bird Goshawk AccipterGentilisJuvenileFlight1.jpg
State tree Shisham Dalbergia sissoo Bra24.png
Cobra is common in Punjab

Except in the hills, Punjab contains comparatively little that is indigenous. There are no natural forests in the plains; extensive tracts occur covered only with grass, shrubs and bushes. The mango is largely cultivated in the south-east of the Punjab and attains a high degree of perfection about Multan and Hoshiarpur. Cultivated fruit trees are abundant, such as orange, pomegranate, apple, peach, fig, mulberry, quince, apricot, almond, and plum.[15] There are a number of wetlands, bird sanctuaries and zoological parks all over Punjab. These include the Hari-ke-pattan National Wetland and Wildlife Sanctuary at Amritsar, the Kanjli Wetland, the Kapurtala Sutlej Water Body Wetland, the Ropar Zoological Park, Chhatbir, Bansar Garden, Sangrur, the Aam Khas Bagh, Sirhind, the Ram Bagh Garden, the Shalimar Garden, Kapurthala and the Baradari Garden at Patiala.[16] Among poisonous snakes the most remarkable are the cobra, and a small snake, the sangehur, the bit of which causes instantaneous death. The rivers are infested with alligators, and fish of various species abound. The silkworm is reared with great skill and industry, and bees produce abundant wax and honey. Camels thrive in the hot southern plains, and herds of buffaloes on the grazing lands adjoining the rivers. Horses of excellent quality are reared in the north-east part of the country.[15] A variety of mammals like the Smooth Indian Otter, Hog Deer, Wild Boar, Flying Fox, Wildcat, Squirrel, Fruitbat, Common Mongoose can be seen in Zoological Park Chhatbir.
[edit] Punjabi News Papers

* Doaba Headlines
* Ajit [2]
* Rozana Spokesman
* Aaj Di Awaz [3]

[edit] Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Punjab (India)
[show]Population Growth
Census Pop. %±
1951 9,161,000
—
1961 11,135,000 21.5%
1971 13,551,000 21.7%
1981 16,788,915 23.9%
1991 20,281,969 20.8%
2001 24,289,296 19.8%
source:Census of India [17][18]
Religion No. of people[19] % of total
Total population 24358999[20] 100%
Sikhs 14592387 59.91%
Hindus 8997942 36.94%
Muslims 382045 1.57 %
Christians 292800 1.20 %
Buddhists 41487 0.17 %
Jains 39276 0.16 %
Others 8594 0.04 %

Sikhism is the most practiced faith in Punjab, and roughly 60% of the population belongs to the Sikh faith. 37% of the population practices Hinduism with other Sikh Sects. Other faiths include Islam, Buddhism, Christianity and Jainism.[19]

The holiest of Sikh Shrines, the Shri Harmandir Sahib Ji (or Golden Temple), is in The Holy city of Amritsar. The Sri Akal Takht Sahib Ji which resides within the Golden temple complex is the temporal seat of Sikhs. Of the five Takhts (Temporal Seats) of Sikhism, three are in Punjab. Anandpur Sahib is where Shri Guru Gobind Singh Ji created the Khalsa on Vaisakhi. During major holidays on the Sikh calendar (such as Vaisakhi, Hola Mohalla, Gurpurb or Diwali), many Sikhs gather and march through virtually every city, town and village in Punjab. Sikhism is so common in fact, that at least one Sikh Gurdwara can be found in every village, town and city (in various styles and sizes).

The Punjabi language, written in the Gurmukhi script is the official and most commonly used language in the state. The other language which is spoken in Punjab is Hindi, the widely spoken language across India.
[edit] Education
NIPER Mohali research blocks
Maharaja Ranjit Singh Bhawan (CSE Department)
Main article: Education in Punjab (India)

Punjab is served by 16 public institutes in higher education (listed below). All the major arts, humanities, science, engineering, law, medicine, veterinary science, and business courses are offered, leading to first degrees as well as postgraduate awards. Punjab Agricultural University is one of the world's leading authorities in agriculture. It was instrumental and played vital role in Punjab's Green Revolution in the 1960s-70s.

* Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar.
* Punjabi University, Patiala.
* Panjab University, Chandigarh.
* Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh.(Deemed university)
* Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.
* Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar.
* Baba Farid University of Health Sciences, Faridkot.
* Regional Institute of Management and Technology, Fatehgarh Sahib.
* Punjab Veterinary Sciences University, Talwandi Sabo[21].

* Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University[22].
* National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Mohali
* National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar.
* Thapar University, Patiala.
* Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Sangrur
* Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar
* Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana
* Lovely Professional University,Jalandhar

The current Prime Minister of India, Dr Manmohan Singh was educated at Panjab University, Chandigarh and Oxford and Cambridge in UK.

Professor Har Gobind Khorana, famous Nobel laureate & biotechnologist was educated at Panjab University.

Christian Medical College, Ludhiana has been training doctors since 1894, and has been a pioneering institution of higher education in north India.(www.cmcludhiana.org). The First ever full face and scalp transplant in the world was performed here is among the other firsts that CMC Ludhiana's contribution to Punjab and North India,(http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050815/asp/knowhow/story_5105265.asp)
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Punjab (India)
Punjabi Jatt Agriculturalist.

According to the India State Hunger Index 2008, Punjab has the lowest level of hunger in India. Less than one-fourth of children below the age of five are underweight, although Punjab "came off worse than countries like Gabon and Vietnam when measured on the index".[23]

Punjab has the best infrastructure in all of India[2][24] The Indian National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) has ranked Punjab's infrastructure as the best in India. Its road, rail, air and transport system is rated best in the country with ranking of 210 points[2] compared to the national average of 100 in NCAER’s infrastructure index. It has highest per capita generation of electricity in India, which is 2.5 times the national average. Although it has a huge shortage of electricity due to high demand .All major cities in Punjab benefit from this and have some of the lowest tariff's in India. All of Punjab's villages have been electrified and connected to the state electrical power grid since 1974. The state run electricity board is in a perpetual state of crisis and lack of funds due to corruption, faulty subsidies and poor management and work ethic.

Punjab (Land of the five rivers) is one of the most fertile regions on earth. The region is ideal for wheat-growing. Rice, sugar cane, fruits and vegetables are also grown. Indian Punjab is called the "Granary of India" or "India's bread-basket".[25] It produces 14% of India's cotton, 20% of India's wheat, and 9% of India's rice. In worldwide terms, Indian Punjab produces 2% of the world's cotton, 2% of its wheat and 1% of the world's rice.[25] The largest grown crop is wheat. Other important crops are rice, cotton, sugarcane, pearl millet, maize, barley and fruit. In Punjab per hectare consumption of fertilizer is 177 kg as compared to 90 kg at national level. Also Punjab State has been awarded National Productivity Award for agriculture extension services for consecutively ten years from 1991-92 to 1998-99 and 2001 to 2003-04. In recent years a drop in productivity has been observed mainly due to falling fertility of the soil. This is believed to be due to excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides over the years. Also a big worry is the rapidly falling water table on which almost 90% of the agriculture depends, which has witnessed alarming drops in recent years[26]. The challenge therefore is to adopt a new and more environmentally friendly agricultural model which would have to be radically different from the one followed now.

Source: Punjab Government[citation needed]

Excluding agriculture other major industries include the manufacture of scientific instruments, electrical goods, machine tools, textiles, tourism, sewing machines, sports goods, starch, fertilizers, bicycles, and the processing of pine oil and sugar.
[edit] Districts
Quark, Mohali
Districts of Punjab along with their headquarters

Punjab state is divided into 4 subdivisions and 20 administrative districts (listed below):

Divisions:

* Firozpur Division
* Faridkot Division
* Patiala Division
* Jalandhar Division

Districts:

* Amritsar District
* Barnala District
* Bathinda District
* Firozpur District
* Fatehgarh Sahib District
* Faridkot District
* Gurdaspur District

* Hoshiarpur District
* Jalandhar District
* Kapurthala District
* Ludhiana District
* Mansa District
* Moga District
* Mohali District
* Muktsar District
* Patiala District
* Rupnagar District
* Sangrur District
* Shahid Bhagat Singh Nagar district
* Tarn Taran District

[edit] Government and politics
Main articles: Punjab (India) Politics and Punjab Government

Like other states in India, the head of state of Punjab is the Governor, appointed by the President of India on the advice of the Central government. His or her post is largely ceremonial. The Chief Minister is the head of government and is vested with most of the executive powers. Chandigarh is the capital of Punjab, and houses the Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly) and the secretariat. Chandigarh also serves as the capital of Haryana, and is a union territory of India. The Punjab & Haryana High Court, located in Chandigarh, has jurisdiction over the whole state.[27]
[edit] Tourism
Famous tourist visiting site Mohindra College, Patiala at night.
Main article: Punjab (India) Tourism

Tourism is a swiftly expanding area and many analysts predict huge potential. Tourism of Punjab is principally suited for the tourist interested in culture, civilization, spirituality and epic history. More specifically tourism is particularly suited for the person who is interested in epic history, the celebrated Punjabi culture, royal Punjabi palaces, historic battles and of course the world-renowned examples of Sikh architecture, shrines and temples.
[edit] Culture
Main article: Punjabi culture

Music of Punjab is well-known. Bhangra is one of the many Punjabi musical art forms that is increasingly being listened to in the west and is becoming a mainstream favourite. Punjabi music is being used by western musicians, in many ways, such as mixing it with other compositions to produce award-winning music. In addition, Punjabi Classical music is increasingly becoming popular in the west due to the beauty of sounds of the Punjabi language and its composition.

Cinema of Punjab dates back to before partition. K.D. Mehra made the first Punjabi film Sheila (also known as Pind di Kudi). Baby Noor Jehan was introduced as an actress and singer in this film. Sheila was made in Calcutta and released in Lahore, the capital of Punjab; it ran very successfully and was a hit across the province. Due to the success of this first film many more producers started making Punjabi films. As of 2009, Punjabi cinema has produced between 900 and 1,000 movies. The average number of releases per year in the 1970s was nine; in the 1980s, eight; and in the 1990s, six. In 1995, the number of films released was 11; it plummeted to seven in 1996 and touched a low of five in 1997. Since 2000s the Punjabi cinema has seen a revival with more releases every year featuring bigger budgets, home grown stars as well as bollywood actors of Punjabi descent taking part.

Punjabi cuisine has an immense range of dishes and has become world-leader in the field so much so that many entrepreneurs that have invested in the sector have built large personal fortunes due to popularity of Punjabi Cuisine throughout the world.

Punjabi Poetry is renowned for its extremely deep meaning, beautiful, exciting and hopeful use of words. The poetry is one of the deepest insights into the Punjabi mindset. The large number of Punjabi poetry masterpieces are being translated throughout the world into many languages. Famous Punjabi poets.

A Punjabi qissa (story; pl. qisse) is a tradition of Punjabi language oral story-telling that came to South Asia with migrants from the Arabian peninsula and contemporary Iran and Afghanistan.[28]
A Punjabi woman participating in Gidha folk dance.

Punjabi dances, due to the long history of the Punjabi culture and of the Punjabi people there is a large number of dances. These dances are normally performed at times of celebration the most prominent being at Punjabi weddings, where the elation is usually particularly intense. The particular background of the dances can be non-religious and religious. The overall style can range from very high energy to more reserved, however the common elements make it particularly attractive to the viewers whether they be of Punjabi heritage or not, the allure is considered universal. Punjabi dances are designed for either men or women.

Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are traditionally conducted in Punjabi and are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. Marriage ceremonies are conducted in Punjabi by Granthi for Sikhs, in Sanskrit by Pandits for Hindus and Jains. There are occasional commonalities in ritual, song, dance, food, dress. The Punjabi wedding has many rituals and ceremonies that have evolved since traditional times.
[edit] Famous people
The Golden Temple is one of the oldest Sikh Gurudwara and houses Akal Takht
See also: Punjabi people, List of Punjabis, and List of Punjabi language poets

The Punjab Medals of Honour are a collection of awards that are given by the Government of Punjab for exceptional excellence and achievement in the service of Punjab, the Punjabi people and internationally. Some awards are given yearly and some are only given rarely and under exceptional circumstances, where the individual has shown remarkable sacrifice or personal service of Punjab. To win one of the rare awards would probably make the individual a household famous name in Punjab. Two of the most prestigious awards are Punjab Rattan Award and the Maharaja Ranjit Singh Award (a very prestigious award).

The Indian Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh is a Punjabi. Two former Indian Prime Ministers include I K Gujral and Gulzarilal Nanda both of whom were also Punjabis. Another Punjabi to occupy the topmost post in India was the former President of India Giani Zail Singh. A former Chief of Army Staff of India, General General Joginder Jaswant Singh is a Punjabi and also the current Army Chief General Deepak Kapoor is a Punjabi, so is famous Nobel laureate Professor Har Gobind Khorana. The first Indian in Outer space is a Punjabi - Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma. The highest ranking office in the history of the Indian Air force was a Punjabi, [[Arjan Singh|Marshal of the Air Force of India - Arjan Singh]] (the highest rank ever given in the history of the Indian Air force). The first Indian-American Governor and new Governor Elect of Louisiana., USA Bobby Jindal (Rep) is also a Punjabi Hindu from his father's parental lineage. In the entertainment sector, the giant Dalip Singh helps "promote" Punjab in the sphere of Professional wrestling. Indian cricket star Harbhajan Singh . Gurdas Mann and Hans Raj Hans are two of the most famous singers to come from the punjab. The first ever Asian Member of the US Congress, Dr. Dalip Singh Saund, was a Punjabi as was Kalpana Chawla, the famous US astronaut.
[edit] Twin Punjabi Associations

The Punjab historically, since ancient times, has been one cultural and political entity within which the Punjabi people have lived in. However, after the partition of India the Punjab was divided, cutting the Punjabi people in two across the international border between Pakistan and India. Relations after partition were unusually Luke-warm between the twin Punjabs. However, over the last 20 years both Punjab governments, in India and Pakistan, have made concerted effort to maintaining cultural and historical ties of the Punjabi people. This included the international Punjabi Games held in 2004, arranged by both Punjab Governments. Academic institutions have kept their strong contacts such as Universities that were spilt after partition, such as the twin Punjab Universities at Chandigarh and Lahore.
[edit] See also

* Punjabi people
* Punjabi Culture
* History of the Punjab
* Punjab region
* Punjab (Pakistan)

[edit] References

1. ^ [ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Chandigarhs_per_capita_income_highest_in_India/articleshow/3487128.cms Chandigarh's per capita income highest in India]
2. ^ a b c Welcome to Official Web site of Punjab, India
3. ^ Best overall performance award to Punjab- Hindustan Times
4. ^ http://www.newkerala.com/states-of-india/punjab.php
5. ^ a b http://punjabonline.in/Profile/Geography/
6. ^ a b http://punjabgovt.nic.in/punjabataglance/SomeFacts.htm
7. ^ "article=discoverindia_places_punjab Punjab - State". 4to40.com. http://www.4to40.com/discoverindia/places/index.asp article=discoverindia_places_punjab. Retrieved 2006-10-14.
8. ^ See Amnesty Reports such as Punjab Trauma
9. ^ Advani’s Blue Star remark makes Akali Dal see red- Hindustan Times
10. ^ [1] BJP accuses Congress of Terrorism
11. ^ Extremists in India Kill 80 on 2 Trains As Voting Nears End, The New York Times (June 16, 1991)
12. ^ New York Times
13. ^ a b c d e Simmering discontent: Sikhs in Punjab are fighting many wars. 8 Mar, 2008, 0000 hrs IST,Praveen S Thampi, Times of India.
14. ^ Casteist assault by ANNIE ZAIDI. Frontline Volume 23 - Issue 02, Jan. 28 - Feb. 10, 2006.
15. ^ a b http://www.sadapunjab.com/cv/Literature_On_Punjab/PUNJAB/Climate_And_Resources_In_Punjab/index0.html
16. ^ http://www.india-travel-information.com/india-information/Indian-States/Punjab/333-Flora-And-Fauna.html
17. ^ "Demographic Trends". Census of India. www.punenvis.nic.in. http://www.punenvis.nic.in/demo_trends.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
18. ^ "Census Population" (PDF). Census of India. Ministry of Finance India. http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2006-07/chapt2007/tab97.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-18.
19. ^ a b Census of India, 2001: population of Punjab by religion
20. ^ Census of India, 2001
21. ^ "Higher Education". http://punjabgovt.nic.in/Education/HigherEducation.htm. Retrieved 2006-09-16.
22. ^ "Finally, Punjab gets its first veterinary university". Official web site of Punjab, India. 2006-06-02. http://punjabgovt.nic.in/TENDERS/News2006/june/3June.htm. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
23. ^ "India fares badly on global hunger index". Times of India. 2008. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/India_fares_badly_on_global_hunger_index/rssarticleshow/3596818.cms.
24. ^ Welcome to Official Web site of Punjab, India
25. ^ a b Welcome to Official Web site of Punjab, India
26. ^ Upmanu Lall. "Punjab: A tale of prosperity and decline". Columbia Water Center. http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/water/2009/07/28/punjab-a-tale-of-prosperity-and-decline/. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
27. ^ "Jurisdiction and Seats of Indian High Courts". Eastern Book Company. http://www.ebc-india.com/lawyer/hcourts.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
28. ^ Mir, Farina. "[http://www.unc.edu/depts/cdeisi/abstracts.html Representations of Piety and Community in Late-nineteenth-century Punjabi Qisse]". Columbia University. http://www.unc.edu/depts/cdeisi/abstracts.html. Retrieved 2008-07-04.

History of Gujarat

2009-10-22T22:19:00.000-07:00

Situated on the western coast of India, the name of the state is derived from Gujjarātta (Gurjar Rāshtra), which means the land of the Gujjars . It is believed that a tribe of Gujjars migrated to India around the 5th century. The history of Gujarat, however, began much earlier. Settlements of the Indus Valley Civilisation, also known as the Harappan Civilisation, have been found in the area now known as Gujarat. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch, served as ports and trading centres in the Maurya and Gupta empires. After the fall of the Gupta empire in the 6th century, Gujarat flourished as an independent Hindu kingdom. The Maitraka dynasty, descended from a Gupta general, ruled from the 6th to the 8th centuries from their capital at Vallabhi, although they were ruled briefly by Harsha during the 7th century. The Arab rulers of Sind sacked Vallabhi in 770, bringing the Maitraka dynasty to an end. A branch of the Pratihara clan ruled Gujarat after the eighth century. In 775 the first Parsi (Zoroastrian) refugees arrived in Gujarat from Iran.
Bombay Presidency in 1909, northern portion
Bombay Presidency in 1909, southern portion
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Early History: Mauryas to Maitrakas
* 2 Gurjar Clans
* 3 Muslim Period
* 4 The Marathas and the British
* 5 Foreign Period: 1614 to 1947
* 6 Indian Independence Movement
* 7 Post Independence
* 8 2001 Gujarat Earthquake

[edit] Early History: Mauryas to Maitrakas

The early history of Gujarat is full of imperial grandeur of Chandragupta Maurya who conquered a number of earlier States of Gujarat. Pushyamitra, a Vaishya, was appointed Governor of Saurashtra by the Mauryan regime. He ruled (322 BC to 294 BC) Giringer (present Junagadh) and built a dam on the Sudarshan lake. Emperor Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, not only ordered engraving of his famous edicts on the rock at Junagadh, but asked his Governor Tusherpha to take out canals from the lake where an earlier Mauryan Governor had built a dam.

Between the decline of the Mauryan power and Saurashtra coming under the sway of Samprati Mauryas of Ujjain, there was a Greek incursion into Gujarat led by Demetrius.

For nearly 400 years from the start of the first century, Saka rulers played prominent part in Gujarat's history. Weather beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the Ruler Rudradaman I (100 AD) of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to Aparanta region which bordered Punjab.

The Kshatrapa dynasty was replaced by the Gupta reign with the conquest of Gujarat by Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Vikramaditya's successor Skandagupta has left an inscription (450 AD) on a rock at Junagadh which gives details of the repairs of the embankment, damaged by floods, of Sudarshan lake by his Governor. Anarta and Saurashtra regions were both part of the Gupta empire. Towards the middle of the 5th Century AD the Gupta empire started to decline. Senapati Bhatarka, the Maitrak general of the Guptas, took advantage of the situation and in 470 AD he set up what came to be known as the Maitrak kingdom. he shifted his capital from Giringer to Valabhipur, near Bhavnagar, on Saurashtra's east coast. Maitrakas of Valabhi became very powerful and their writ prevailed over large parts of Gujarat and even over adjoining Malwa. Maitrakas set up a university which came to be known far and wide for its scholastic pursuits and was compared with the famous Nalanda university. it was during the rule of Dhruvasena Maitrak theat Chinese philosopher-traveller Huan Tang visited in 640 AD.
[edit] Gurjar Clans

The Solanki clan of Gurjars ruled Gujarat from c. 960 to 1243. Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and their capital at Anhilwara (Patan) was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. In 1026, the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni. After 1243, the Solkanis lost control of Gujarat to their feudatories, of whom the Vaghela chiefs of Dholka came to dominate Gujarat. In 1292 the Vaghelas became tributaries of the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri in the Deccan.

Dadda, the founder of Pratihara dynasty, established the Gurjar rule at Nandipur (Nandol). Dadda III wrested Broach from the Maitraks whose citadel had started shaking. In fact, there were three powerful dynasties which were ruling different parts of Gujarat: the Gurjars had their sway over the north, the Chalukyas ruled the south and the Maitraks were saddled in Saurashtra. The vacuum created by the fall of the Maitrak dynasty was filled up by the Pratiharas from the north and Rashtrakutas from the south.

As vassals of the Valabhis, Chavadas held their sway over parts of north Gujarat. They assumed independent control after the fall of Valabhi. Vanraj,. the most prominent of the eight Chavada kings, founded a new capital at ASnhilpur Patan. he reconquered his father's lost territories and founded the Chavada dynasty which lasted a shade under a century.

Samantsinh, the last Chavada ruler, did not have an issue and he adopted Mulraj who overthrew him in 942 AD and set up what came to be known as the Solanki dynasty. Ambitious as he was, he started expanding his frontiers and established his complete and total hold over Saurashtra and Kachchh by defeating Grahripu of Junagadh (Saurashtra) and Lakho Fulani of Kachchh. Mulraj Solanki's reign marked the start of the most glorious period in the history of Gujarat during which Gujarati culture flowered as manifested in art, architecture, language and script. It is described as the golden period in Gujarat chequered history. Mulraj himself adopted the title of Gurharesh ( King of Gurjardesh). The territoporieds under the sway of the Solanki dynasty same to be known by different variations of the word Gurjar like Gurjardesh, Gurjararastra, Gurjaratta and finally Gujarat.

Two names stand out in the Solanki dynasty. The first is that of Sidhraj Jayasinh who ruled for 47 years from 1094 A.D. and the second prominent Solanki king Kumarpala's reign lasted for 31 years from 1143 to 1174 AD. Apart from Saurashtra and Kachchh, Sidhraj Jaysinh also conquered Malwa. One of the favourite legends with the Gujarat bards is woven around the siege of Junagadh by Sidhraj Jaysinh. The fort was ultimately captured by him along with Ranakdevi, the Queen of the ruler Rakhengar. However, in the true tradition of the Rajputs, Ranakdevi preferred to become a 'sati' rather than marry Sidharaj Jaysinh. Sidharaj was persuaded to allow Ranakdevi to commit 'Sati' by burning herself on a pyre at Wadhavan. A temple was built on the hallowed place where she became 'Sati'. The temple still stands in Wadhavan, Saurashtra, as a mute testimony to the woman who preferred death to marriage with the person who had humbled her husband. The temple is called Ranakdevi's temple.

The guardian family deity of the Solanki's was Somnath at Prabhas. Ironically, it was during the Solanki's rule that the scared shrine was sacked by Mahmud Ghazni who defiled and despoiled the fabulously rich shrine and put 50,000 Hindus to sword. The temple was destroyed with its Linga during the regime of Bhimdev I Bhimdev's successor Karandev defeated a Bhil chieftain and founded Karnavati. Karandev married Minaldevi by whom he begot Sidhraj who ushered in Gujarat's golden period. Sidhraj's successor Kumarpala encouraged Jainism. Bal Mulraj successfully repelled the incursions of Mahmud of Ghor who had the ambition of repeating the act performed by Mahmud Ghazni.

After the fall of Solanki rule, Vaghelas who were in the service of the Solanki's established a rather short-lived (76 years) but powerful dynasty. The two rulers of this dynasty, Virdhaval and Vishaldev, were responsible for consolidating the stabilising the prosperity of Gujarat after the fall of the Solankis. While Vishaldev built the famous temples of Dabhoi and founded Vishalnagar, the credit for building magnificent temples at Abu, Girnar and Shetrunjay goes to two distinguished Dewans (chief ministers) - Vastupal and Tejpal - of Virdhaval. After the sack of the Somnath by Mahmud Ghazni, Kinlock Forbes, a British historian, had this to say "Mahmood of Ghuznee had hardly accomplished his disastrous homeward retreat, leaving behind him Unhilwara despoiled and Somnath a heap of ruins, when the sound of the hammer and the chisel was heard upon Arasoor and Aboo, and the stately fanes began to arise at Koobharea and Delwara, in which an elaboration almost incredible and a finish worthy of the hand of a Cellini, seemed to express the founder's steadfast refusal to believe in mlechh invaders, or iconoclastic destroyers, as other than the horrid phantom of a disturbing dream."

Karandev of the Vaghela dynasty was the last Hindu ruler of Gujarat. He was defeated and overthrown by the superior forces of Allauddin Khilji from Delhi in 1297. With his defeat Gujarat not only became part of the Muslim empire but the Rajput hold over Gujarat lost for ever.
[edit] Muslim Period

Before they finally entrenched themselves in 1298, the Muslims had only an occasional contact with this part of India. This was either as sea-farers or traders. They were allowed to establish two small settlements in Cambay (current Khambhat) and Broach (current Bharuch). Abdulla, a missionary from Egypt, who came during Sidhraj Jaysinh's regime and was allowed to preach, is credited with the formation of Bohra community among the Muslims. However, after the defeat of Karandev Vaghela at the hands of Allauddin Khilji, Muslim rule continued for nearly 400 years either under Delhi's viceroyalty or under Muslim Sultanates till the Mughal viceroy, Monimnkhan was defeated by the Marathas who captured Ahmedabad in 1758.

Zafar Shah, a vicerory of Delhi for Gujarat, was responsible for starting the Sultanete in Gujarat. He fully exploited then prevailing conditions in Delhi to his advantage. He shook off his loyalty to the emperor, declared independence and became the first Sultan. He assumed the title of Muzaffar Shah. His successor Ahmed Shah founded a new city, following a dream, on the banks of the River Sabarmati and named it Ahmedabad after his own name. Since then, this new city became the capital of successive regimes in Gujarat until the state of Gujarat was formed in 1960 and the capital was moved to new city of Gandhinagar later. Ahmedabad grew into a flourishing city and became next only to Delhi in importance.

Mahmud Shah succeeded Ahmed Shah, Mahmud became a powerful ruler and was successful in over powering and subduing most of the Rajput chieftains. As a conqueror Mahmud was ruthless, as an administrator efficient and as a builder a great one. Apart from subduing the Rajput chieftains, Mahmud also successfully checked the Portuguese menance with the help of a naval fleet raised by his slave named Malik Ayyaz. He set up his Naval base at Diu off the Sautrashtra coast.

Under Mahmud Shah Gujarat once again became prosperous and there was a great deal of progress and building activity. Patan, the ancient seat of Hindu learning, once again became a seat of learning in Islamic disciplines. The available infrastructure at Patan was exploited by Mahmud Shah. The decline of the Sultanate started with the assassination of Sikandar Shah. Because of this decline Gujarat became an easy prey to the great Mughal Emperor Akbar's armies. Bahadur Shah, the last Sultan, was defeated which marked the beginning of the Mughal rule which lasted some 185 years.

Notwithstanding the fact that Gujarat became a part of the Mughal Empire its importance did not diminish as is apparent from the selection of the ablest princes as Gujarat's viceroys. Murad, Shah Jahan, Dara Shekov were all made the Viceroys of this West coast region. The formal Muslim rule in Guijarat ended in 1758 when Momin Khan surrendered to the Marathas.
[edit] The Marathas and the British

When the cracks had started developed in the edifice of the Mughal empire in the mid 17th century, the Marathas were consolidating their power in the west, Chatrapati Shivaji, the great Maratha ruler, attacked Surat twice first in 1664 and again in 1672. These attacks marked the entry of the Marathas into Gujarat. However, before the Maratha inroads into Gujarat, the Europeans had made their presence felt, with the Portuguese leading them, followed by the Dutch and the English.

The Peshwas had established their sovereignty over Gujarat including Saurashtra, and collected taxes and tributes through their representatives. Damaji Gaekwad and Kadam Bande divided the Peshwa's territory between them, with Damaji establishing the sway of Gaekwad over Gujarat and made Baroda (present day Vadodara) his Capital. The ensuing internecine war among the Marathas were fully exploited by the British, who interferedin the affairs of both Gaekwads and the Peshwas.

The British also embarked upon their policy of Subsidiary Alliance. With this policy they established their paramountcy over one princely state after another. Anandrao Gaekwad joined the Alliance in 1802 and surrendered Surat and adjoining territories to the English. In the garb of helping the Marathas, the British helped themselves, and gradually the Marathas' power came to an end, in 1819 in Gujarat. Gaekwad and other big and small rulers accepted the British Paramountcy.
[edit] Foreign Period: 1614 to 1947

Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat, acquiring several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The British East India Company established a factory in Surat in 1614, which formed their first base in India, but it was eclipsed by Bombay(now Mumbai) after the British acquired it from Portugal in 1668. The Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwads of Baroda (Vadodara), made a separate peace with the British, and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch, and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into dozens of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat, namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira, Panch Mahals, and Surat, were ruled directly by British officials.
[edit] Indian Independence Movement

The people of Gujarat were the most enthusiastic participants in India's struggle for freedom. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Morarji Desai, K.M. Munshi, Narhari Parikh, Mahadev Desai, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas all hailed from Gujarat. It was also the site of the most popular revolts, including the Satyagrahas in Kheda, Bardoli, Borsad and the Salt Satyagraha.

See Also: Freedom fighters from Gujarat
[edit] Post Independence

After Indian independence and the Partition of India in 1947, the new Indian government grouped the former princely states of Gujarat into three larger units; Saurashtra, which included the former princely states on the Kathiawar peninsula, Kutch, and Bombay state, which included the former British districts of Bombay Presidency together with most of Baroda state and the other former princely states of eastern Gujarat. In 1956, Bombay state was enlarged to include Kutch, Saurashtra, and parts of Hyderabad state and Madhya Pradesh in central India. The new state had a mostly Gujarati-speaking north and a Marathi-speaking south. Agitation by Marathi nationalists for their own state led to the split of Bombay state on linguistic lines; on 1 May 1960, it became the new states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. The first capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad; the capital was moved to Gandhinagar in 1970.

In Gujarat a few new towns have been established since Indian Independence in 1947. Most of these are more like settlements established near existing urban centres. Gandhidham, Sardarnagar and Kubernagar are three rehabilitation towns more like refugee settlements than self-sufficient towns. The last two now form part of the city of Ahmedabad. They were established for the resettlement of Sindhi Hindu refugees arriving from Pakistan. Ankleshwar and Mithapur were two of the earlier industrial towns established in Gujarat. A complex of three small townships for the oil refinery, the Fertilizer Factory and Petro-chemicals plant also came up near Vadodara. Kandla is the only new port town established in the state. The capital city of Gujarat, Gandhinagar is one of the three planned cities in India and has excellent infrastructure.

West Bengal

2009-10-22T22:15:00.000-07:00

West Bengal (Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo, IPA: [poʃtʃim bɔŋɡo]) is a state in eastern India. With Bangladesh, which lies on its eastern border, the state forms the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. To its northeast lie the states of Assam and Sikkim and the country Bhutan, and to its southwest, the state of Orissa. To the west it borders the states of Jharkhand and Bihar, and to the northwest, Nepal.

The region that is now West Bengal was part of a number of empires and kingdoms during the past two millennia. The British East India Company cemented their hold on the region following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and the city of Calcutta, now Kolkata, served for many years as the capital of British India. A hotbed of the Indian independence movement through the early 20th century, Bengal was divided in 1947 along religious lines into two separate entities, West Bengal—a state of India, and East Bengal, a part of the new nation of Pakistan. Following India's independence in 1947, West Bengal's economic and political systems were dominated for many decades by Marxism, Naxalite movements and trade unionism.

An agriculture-dependent state, West Bengal occupies only 2.7% of the India's land area, though it supports over 7.8% of the Indian population, and is the most densely populated state in India.[1] West Bengal has been ruled by the CPI(M)-led Left Front for three decades, making it the world's longest-running democratically elected communist government. Since the late 1990s, the state has seen a resurgence in its economy after decades of stagnation.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 History
* 2 Geography and climate
* 3 Flora and fauna
* 4 Government and politics
* 5 Subdivisions
* 6 Economy
* 7 Transport
* 8 Demographics
* 9 Culture
* 10 Education
* 11 Media
* 12 Sports
* 13 Notes
* 14 References
* 15 External links

[edit] History
Main article: History of Bengal
See also: History of West Bengal

Remnants of civilisation in the greater Bengal region date back 4,000 years,[2][3] when the region was settled by Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman and Austro-Asiatic peoples. The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang that settled in the area around the year 1000 BC.[4] After the arrival of Indo-Aryans, the kingdom of Magadha was formed in 7th century BC, consisting of the Bihar and Bengal regions. It was one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of Mahavira and the Buddha, and consisted of several Janapadas.[5] During the rule of Maurya dynasty, the Magadha Empire extended over nearly all of South Asia, including Afghanistan and parts of Persia under Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BC.

One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is the mention of a land named Gangaridai by the Greeks around 100 BC. The word is speculated to have come from Gangahrd (Land with the Ganges in its heart) in reference to an area in Bengal.[6] Bengal had overseas trade relations with Java, Sumatra and Siam (modern day Thailand). According to Mahavamsa, Vijaya Singha, a Vanga prince, conquered Lanka (modern day Sri Lanka) in 544 BC and gave the name "Sinhala" to the country. Bengali people migrated to the Malay Archipelago and Siam (in modern Thailand), establishing their own colonies there.

Pala Empire under Dharmapala

Pala Empire under Devapala

From the 3rd to the 6th centuries AD, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire. The first recorded independent king of Bengal was Shashanka, reigning around early 7th century.[7] After a period of anarchy, the Buddhist Pala dynasty ruled the region for four hundred years, followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena dynasty. Islam was introduced to Bengal in the twelfth century by Sufi missionaries. Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region.[8] Bakhtiar Khilji, a Turkic general of the Slave dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, defeated Lakshman Sen of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. Consequently, the region was ruled by dynasties of sultans and feudal lords under the Delhi Sultanate for the next few hundred years. In the sixteenth century, Mughal general Islam Khan conquered Bengal. However, administration by governors appointed by the court of the Mughal Empire gave way to semi-independence of the area under the Nawabs of Murshidabad, who nominally respected the sovereignty of the Mughals in Delhi.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as the "Father of the Bengal Renaissance."

European traders arrived late in the fifteenth century. Their influence grew until the British East India Company gained taxation rights in Bengal subah, or province, following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, when Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab, was defeated by the British.[9] The Bengal Presidency was established by 1765, eventually including all British territories north of the Central Provinces (now Madhya Pradesh), from the mouths of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra to the Himalayas and the Punjab. The Bengal famine of 1770 claimed millions of lives.[10] Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772. The Bengal Renaissance and Brahmo Samaj socio-cultural reform movements had great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal. The failed Indian rebellion of 1857 started near Calcutta and resulted in transfer of authority to the British Crown, administered by the Viceroy of India.[11] Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones.[12] Bengal suffered from the Great Bengal famine in 1943 that claimed 3 million lives.[13]
Subhash Chandra Bose is one of the most prominent freedom fighters from Bengal in the Indian independence movement against the British Raj.

Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups such as Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were dominant. Armed attempts against the British Raj from Bengal reached a climax when Subhash Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army from Southeast Asia against the British. When India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines. The western part went to India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to independent Bangladesh in 1971).[14] Both West and East Bengal suffered from large refugee influx during the partition in 1947, leading to the political unrests later on. The partition of Bengal entailed the greatest exodus of people in Human History. Millions of Hindus migrated from East Pakistan to India and thousands of Muslims too went across the borders to East Pakistan. Because of the immigration of the refugees, there occurred the crisis of land and food in West Bengal; and such condition remained in long duration for more than three decades.The politics of West Bengal since the partition in 1947 developed round the nucleus of refugee problem. Both the Rightists and the Leftists in the Politics of West Bengal have not yet become free from the socio-economic conditions created by the partition of Bengal. These conditions as have remained unresolved in some twisted forms have given birth to local socio-economic, political and ethnic movements.(Ref. Dr. Sailen Debnath, 'West Bengal in Doldrums'ISBN 978-81-86860-34-2; & Dr. Sailen Debnath ed. Social and Political Tensions In North Bengal since 1947, ISBN 81-86860-23-1) In 1950 the Princely State of Cooch Behar merged with West Bengal after King Jagaddipendra Narayan had signed the Instrument of Accession with India.(Ref. Dr. Sailen Debnath,ed. Social and Political Tensions In North Bengal since 1947, ISBN 81-86860-23-1). In 1955, the former French enclave of Chandannagar, which had passed into Indian control after 1950, was integrated into West Bengal; portions of Bihar were subsequently merged with West Bengal.

During the 1960s and 1980s, severe power shortages, strikes and a violent Marxist-Naxalite movement damaged much of the state's infrastructure, leading to a period of economic stagnation. The Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 resulted in the influx of millions of refugees to West Bengal, causing significant strains on its infrastructure.[15] The 1974 smallpox epidemic killed thousands. West Bengal politics underwent a major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress. The Left Front, led by Communist Party of India (Marxist), has governed for the state for the subsequent three decades.[16]

The state's economic recovery gathered momentum after economic reforms in India were introduced in the mid-1990s by the central government, aided by election of a new reformist Chief Minister Buddhadeb Bhattacharya in 2000. As of 2007, armed activists have been organising minor terrorist attacks in some parts of the state,[17][18] while clashes with the administration are taking place at several sensitive places on the issue of industrial land acquisition.[19][20]
[edit] Geography and climate
Main article: Geography of West Bengal
Map of West Bengal
Many areas remain flooded during the heavy rains brought by monsoon.

West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88,752 square kilometres (34,267 sq mi).[21] The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains Sandakfu (3,636 metres/11,929 feet)—the highest peak of the state.[22] The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.
National Highway 31A winds along the banks of the Teesta River near Kalimpong, in the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region.

The Ganges is the main river, which divides in West Bengal. One branch enters Bangladesh as the Padma or Pôdda, while the other flows through West Bengal as the Bhagirathi River and Hooghly River. The Teesta, Torsa, Jaldhaka and Mahananda rivers are in the northern hilly region. The western plateau region has rivers such as the Damodar, Ajay and Kangsabati. The Ganges delta and the Sundarbans area have numerous rivers and creeks. Pollution of the Ganges from indiscriminate waste dumped into the river is a major problem.[23] At least nine districts in the state suffer from arsenic contamination of groundwater, and an estimated 8.7 million people drink water containing arsenic above the World Health Organisation recommended limit of 10 µg/L.[24] West Bengal's climate varies from tropical savannah in the southern portions to humid subtropical in the north. The main seasons are summer, rainy season, a short autumn, and winter. While the summer in the delta region is noted for excessive humidity, the western highlands experience a dry summer like northern India, with the highest day temperature ranging from 38 °C (100 °F) to 45 °C (113 °F).[25] At nights, a cool southerly breeze carries moisture from the Bay of Bengal. In early summer brief squalls and thunderstorms known as Kalbaisakhi, or Nor'westers, often occur.[26] Monsoons bring rain to the whole state from June to September. West Bengal receives the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian ocean monsoon that moves in a northwest direction. Winter (December–January) is mild over the plains with average minimum temperatures of 15 °C (59 °F).[25] A cold and dry northern wind blows in the winter, substantially lowering the humidity level. However, the Darjeeling Himalayan Hill region experiences a harsh winter, with occasional snowfall at places.
[edit] Flora and fauna
State Symbols of West Bengal Union day August 18 (day of accession to India)
State language Bengali Tagoresignature.png
State animal Bengal Tiger A tiger in Pilibhit Tiger Reserve.jpg
State bird White-throated Kingfisher White-throated Kingfisher (Shankar).jpg
State tree Devil Tree Alstonia scholaris.jpg[27]
State flower Night-flowering Jasmine Flower & flower buds I IMG 2257.jpg[27]
A Bengal tiger
Sal trees in Arabari forest, in West Midnapur. Joint Forest Management maintains the forest.

Owing to the varying altitude from the Himalayas to the coastal plains, the flora and fauna of the state is diverse. Forests make up 14% of the geographical area of West Bengal, which is lower than the national average of 23%.[28][29] Protected forests cover 4% of the state area.[30] Part of the world's largest mangrove forest Sundarbans is located in southern West Bengal.[31]

From a phytogeographic viewpoint, the southern part of West Bengal can be divided into two regions: the Gangetic plain and the littoral mangrove forests of the Sundarbans.[32] The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plain compounded with favorable rainfall make this region especially fertile.[32] Much of the vegetation of the western part of the state shares floristic similarities with the plants of the Chota Nagpur plateau in the adjoining state of Jharkhand.[32] The predominant commercial tree species is Shorea robusta, commonly known as Sal. The coastal region of Purba Medinipur exhibits coastal vegetation; the predominant tree is the Casuarina. The most valuable tree from the Sundarbans is the ubiquitous sundri (Heritiera fomes) from which the forest gets its name.[33] Vegetation in northern West Bengal is dictated by elevation and precipitation. For example, the foothills of the Himalayas, the Dooars, are densely wooded with Sal and other trees of the tropical evergreen type.[34] Above 1000 m, the forest type changes to subtropical. In Darjeeling, which is above 1500 m, common trees typifying the temperate forest are oaks, conifers, and rhododendrons.[34]

The Sundarbans are noted for a reserve project conserving Bengal tigers. There are five national parks in the state[35] — Sundarbans National Park, Buxa Tiger Reserve, Gorumara National Park, Neora Valley National Park and Singalila National Park. Wildlife includes the Indian rhinoceros, Indian elephants, deer, bison, leopards, gaur, and crocodiles. The state is also rich in bird life. Migratory birds come to the state during the winter.[30] The high altitude forests like Singalila National Park shelter barking deer, red panda, chinkara, takin, serow, pangolin, minivet and Kalij pheasants. In addition to the Bengal tiger, the Sundarbans host many other endangered species like Gangetic dolphin, river terrapin, estuarine crocodile etc.[36] The mangrove forest also acts as a natural fish nursery, supporting coastal fishes along the Bay of Bengal.[36]
[edit] Government and politics
Main article: Government of West Bengal
See also: Chief Minister of West Bengal
Calcutta High Court is the highest court in West Bengal
SUCI rally in Kolkata

West Bengal is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy, a feature the state shares with other Indian states. Universal suffrage is granted to residents. There are two branches of government. The legislature, the West Bengal Legislative Assembly, consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker, that are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. The judiciary is composed of the Calcutta High Court and a system of lower courts. Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Governor. The Governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is unicameral with 295 Members of the Legislative Assembly, or MLAs,[37][38] including one nominated from the Anglo-Indian community. Terms of office run for 5 years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The state contributes 42 seats to Lok Sabha and 16 seats to Rajya Sabha of the Indian Parliament.[39]

The main players in the regional politics are the Left Front alliance (led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPI(M)), the All India Trinamool Congress, the Indian National Congress, and other major parties. Following the West Bengal State Assembly Election in 2006, the Left Front coalition under Buddhadeb Bhattacharya of the CPI(M) was elected to power(getting 235 seats in the legislature). West Bengal has been ruled by the Left Front for the past 30 years, making it the world's longest-running democratically elected communist government.[16]
[edit] Subdivisions
Districts of West Bengal
Main article: Districts of West Bengal

There are 19 districts in West Bengal — Bankura, Bardhaman, Birbhum, Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, East Midnapore, Hooghly, Howrah, Jalpaiguri, Kolkata, Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, North 24 Parganas, North Dinajpur, Purulia, South 24 Parganas, South Dinajpur and West Midnapore. Each district is governed by a district collector or district magistrate, appointed either by the Indian Administrative Service or the West Bengal Civil Service. Each district is subdivided into Sub-Divisions, governed by a sub-divisional magistrate, and again into Blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities.

The capital and largest city of the state is Kolkata — the third-largest urban agglomeration[40] and the fourth-largest city[41] in India. Siliguri is an economically important town, strategically located in the northeastern Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck) of India. Asansol, Durgapur and Raniganj are cities in the western industrial belt. Other major cities and towns in West Bengal are Howrah, Haldia, Kharagpur, Burdwan, Darjeeling, Midnapore, Tamluk, Malda and Cooch Behar.
[edit] Economy
Kolkata is the economic center of West Bengal
Main article: Economy of West Bengal
Gross State Domestic Product at Current Prices (93–94 Base)[42]

figures in crores of Indian Rupees
Year Gross State Domestic Product
1999–2000 135,182
2000–2001 143,532
2001–2002 157,136
2002–2003 168,047
2003–2004 189,099
2004–2005 208,578
2005–2006 236,044

Agriculture is the leading occupation in West Bengal. Rice is the state's principal food crop. Other food crops are pulses, oil seeds, wheat, tobacco, sugarcane and potatoes. Jute is the main cash crop of the region. Tea is also produced commercially; the region is well known for Darjeeling and other high quality teas.[43] However, the service sector is the largest contributor to the gross domestic product of the state, contributing 51% of the state domestic product compared to 27% from agriculture and 22% from industry.[44] State industries are localized in the Kolkata region and the mineral-rich western highlands. The Durgapur–Asansol colliery belt is home to a number of major steel plants.[43] Manufacturing industries playing an important economic role are engineering products, electronics, electrical equipment, cables, steel, leather, textiles, jewellery, frigates, automobiles, railway coaches, and wagons.
Freshly sown saplings of paddy; in the background are stacks of jute sticks.

A significant part of the state is economically backward, namely, large parts of six northern districts of Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Malda, North Dinajpur and South Dinajpur; three western districts of Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum; and the Sundarbans area.[1] Years after independence, West Bengal was still dependent on the central government for meeting its demands for food; food production remained stagnant and the Indian green revolution bypassed the state. However, there has been a significant spurt in food production since the 1980s, and the state now has a surplus of grains.[1] The state's share of total industrial output in India was 9.8% in 1980–81, declining to 5% by 1997–98. However, the service sector has grown at a rate higher than the national rate.[1]

West Bengal has the third largest economy (2003–2004) in India, with a net state domestic product of US$ 21.5 billion.[44] During 2001–2002, the state's average SDP was more than 7.8% — outperforming the National GDP Growth.[45] The state has promoted foreign direct investment, which has mostly come in the software and electronics fields;[44] Kolkata is becoming a major hub for the Information technology (IT) industry. Owing to the boom in Kolkata's and the overall state's economy, West Bengal is now the third fastest growing economy in the country.[46] However, the rapid industrialisation process has given rise to debate over land acquisition for industry in this agrarian state.[47] NASSCOM–Gartner ranks West Bengal power infrastructure the best in the country.[48] West Bengals state domestic product (SDP) grew in 2004 with 12.7 % and in 2005 with 11.0 % .[49]
[edit] Transport
Cycle rickshaws and vans are ubiquitous in rural and semi-urban localities.

The total length of surface road in West Bengal is over 92,023 km (57,180 mi);[50] national highways comprise 2,377 km (1,477 mi)[51] and state highways 2,393 km (1,487 mi). The road density of the state is 103.69 km per 100 km² (166.92 mi per 100 sq mi), higher than the national average of 74.7 km per 100 km² (120 mi per 100 sq mi).[52] Average speed on state highways varies between 40–50 km/h (25–31 mi/h); in villages and towns, speeds are as low as 20–25 km/h (12–16 mi/h) due to the substandard quality of road constructions and low maintenance. Total railway length is 3,825 km (2,377 mi).[53] Kolkata is the headquarters of two divisions of the Indian Railways—Eastern Railway and South Eastern Railway.[54] The Northeast Frontier Railway (NFR) plies in the northern parts of the state. The Kolkata metro is the country's first underground railway.[55] The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, part of NFR, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[56]

The state's only international airport is Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport at Dum Dum, Kolkata. Bagdogra airport near Siliguri is another significant airport in the state and recently it has been upgraded to an international airport. Kolkata is a major river-port in eastern India. The Kolkata Port Trust manages both the Kolkata docks and the Haldia docks.[57] There is passenger service to Port Blair on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and cargo ship service to ports in India and abroad, operated by the Shipping Corporation of India. Ferry is a principal mode of transport in the southern part of the state, especially in the Sundarbans area. Kolkata is the only city in India to have trams as a mode of transport and these are operated by the Calcutta Tramways Company.[58]

Several government-owned organisations operate substandard bus services in the state, including the Calcutta State Transport Corporation, the North Bengal State Transport Corporation, the South Bengal State Transport Corporation, the West Bengal Surface Transport Corporation, and the Calcutta Tramways Company, thus leading to mismanagement. There are also private bus companies. The railway system is a nationalised service without any private investment. Hired forms of transport include metered taxis and auto rickshaws which often ply specific routes in cities. In most of the state, cycle rickshaws, and in Kolkata, hand-pulled rickshaws, are also used for short-distance travel.
[edit] Demographics
Main article: Bengali people
A village scene in West Midnapur. Seventy-two percent of the state's population lives in villages.
Baul singers at Basanta-Utsab, Shantiniketan.
[show]Population Growth
Census Pop. %±
1951 26,300,000
—
1961 34,926,000 32.8%
1971 44,312,000 26.9%
1981 54,581,000 23.2%
1991 68,078,000 24.7%
2001 80,176,000 17.8%
Source:Census of India[59]

The vast majority of the 80,221,171 people of West Bengal[60] are Bengalis.[61] The Bihari minority is scattered throughout the state and communities of Sherpas and ethnic Tibetans can be found in regions bordering Sikkim. Darjeeling district has a large number of Gurkha people of Nepalese origin. West Bengal is home to indigenous tribal Adivasis such as Santals, Kol, Koch-Rajbongshi and Toto tribe.
Dakshineswar Kali Temple

The official language is Bengali. Hindi and English are also used commonly. Nepali is spoken primarily in the Darjeeling district. Languages such as Rajbongshi, Santali and Ho are used in some parts of the state.

Hinduism is the principal religion at 72% of the total population, while Muslims comprise 23%; Sikhism, Christianity and other religions make up the remainder.[62] West Bengal has a population density of 904 inhabitants per square kilometre (2,341.3/sq mi) making it the most densely populated state in India.[63] The state contributes 7.81% of India's population.[64] The state's 1991–2001 growth rate of 17.84% is lower than the national rate of 21.34%.[60] The gender ratio is 934 females per 1000 males.[60]

The literacy rate is 69.22%.[60] Data of 1995–1999 showed the life expectancy in the state was 63.4 years, higher than the national value of 61.7 years.[65] About 72% of people live in rural areas. The proportion of people living below the poverty line in 1999–2000 was 31.85%.[1] Scheduled Castes and Tribes form 28.6% and 5.8% of the population respectively in rural areas, and 19.9% and 1.5% respectively in urban areas.[1]

The crime rate in the state in 2004 was 82.6 per 100,000, which was half of the national average.[66] This is the fourth-lowest crime rate among the 32 states and union territories of India.[67] However, the state reported the highest rate of Special and Local Laws (SLL) crimes.[68] In reported crimes against women, the state showed a crime rate of 7.1 compared to the national rate of 14.1.[67] West Bengal was the first Indian state to constitute a Human Rights Commission of its own.[67]
[edit] Culture
See also: Culture of West Bengal and Culture of Darjeeling
Swami Vivekananda is great spiritual leader and idological motivator of West Bengal

The Bengali language boasts a rich literary heritage, shared with neighboring Bangladesh. West Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the Charyapada, Mangalkavya, Shreekrishna Kirtana, Thakurmar Jhuli, and stories related to Gopal Bhar. In the nineteenth and twentieth century, Bengali literature was modernized in the works of authors such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Jibananda Das and Manik Bandyopadhyay.
Rabindranath Tagore is Asia's first Nobel laureate and composer of India's and Bangladesh's national anthem

The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music, which has also been influenced by regional music traditions.[69] Other folk music forms include Gombhira and Bhawaiya. Folk music in West Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. West Bengal also has an heritage in North Indian classical music. "Rabindrasangeet", songs composed and set into tune by Rabindranath Tagore and "Nazrul geeti" (by Kazi Nazrul Islam) are popular.
Satyajit Ray is regarded as one of the greatest auteurs of 20th century cinema.

Also prominent are other musical forms like Dwijendralal, Atulprasad and Rajanikanta's songs, and "adhunik" or modern music from films and other composers. From the early 1990s, there has been an emergence and popularisation of new genres of music, including fusions of Baul and Jazz by several Bangla bands, as well as the emergence of what has been called Jeebonmukhi Gaan (a modern genre based on realism). Bengali dance forms draw from folk traditions, especially those of the tribal groups, as well as the broader Indian dance traditions. Chau dance of Purulia is a rare form of mask dance.[70]

Mainstream Hindi films are popular, as are films from the Bengali cinema industry, dubbed "Tollywood". Tollygunj in Kolkata is the location of Bengali movie studios and the name "Tollywood" (similar to Hollywood, USA) is derived from that name. The Bengali film industry is also known for art films or Indy films. Its long tradition of filmmaking has produced acclaimed directors like Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, Tapan Sinha and Ritwik Ghatak. Contemporary directors include Buddhadev Dasgupta, Goutam Ghose, Aparna Sen and Rituparno Ghosh.

Bengal had been the harbinger of modernism in fine arts. Abanindranath Tagore, called the father of Modern Indian Art had started the Bengal School of Art which was to create styles of art outside the European realist tradition which was taught in art colleges under the colonial administration of the British Government. The movement had many adherents like Gaganendranath Tagore, Ramkinkar Baij, Jamini Roy and Rabindranath Tagore. After Indian Independence, important groups like the Calcutta Group and the Society of Contemporary Artists were formed in bengal which dominated the art scene in India. Since 1990, Indian economy has been liberalized gradually which helped many Indian artists like Paresh Maity, Devajyoti Ray, Sanjay Bhattacharya, Kaushik Bannerjee, earn international reputation.[citation needed]
A Murti (representation) of Durga, shown riding her lion and attacking the demon Mahishasura.

Rice and fish are traditional favorite foods, leading to a saying in Bengali, machhe bhate bangali, that translates as "fish and rice make a Bengali".[71] Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes hilsa preparations, a favorite among Bengalis. Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including Rôshogolla, Chômchôm, Kalojam and several kinds of Pithe. Popular street food includes Beguni, Kati roll, and phuchka.[72][73] Panta bhat (rice soaked overnight in water) is a traditional dish consumed in rural areas.
An Indian pilgrim, in Gangasagar fair in Diamond Harbour, West Bengal, India.

Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi , often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western attire. Among men, western dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the panjabi with dhuti , often on cultural occasions. Durga Puja in October is the most popular festival in the West Bengal.[74] Pohela Baishakh (the Bengali New Year), Rathayatra, Dolyatra or Basanta-Utsab, Nobanno, Poush parbon (festival of Poush), Kali puja, Saraswatipuja, Laxmipuja, Christmas, Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha are other major festivals. Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, is one of the most important Hindu/Buddhist festivals while Christmas, called Bôŗodin (Great day) in Bengali is celebrated by the minority Christian population. West Bengal has been home to several famous religious teachers, including Sri Chaitanya, Sri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, and Paramahansa Yogananda.
[edit] Education
Main article: Education in West Bengal
IIM Calcutta
IIT Kharagpur

West Bengal schools are run by the state government or by private organisations, including religious institutions. Instruction is mainly in English or Bengali, though Hindi and Urdu are also used. The secondary schools are affiliated with the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), or the West Bengal Board of Secondary Education. Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing secondary school, students typically enroll for 2 years in a junior college, also known as pre-university, or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with the West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education or any central board. Students choose from one of three streams, namely, liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs.

West Bengal has eighteen universities.[75][76] The University of Calcutta, one of the oldest and largest public universities in India, has more than 200 affiliated colleges.[77] The Bengal Engineering & Science University and Jadavpur University are prestigious technical universities.[78] Visva-Bharati University at Santiniketan is a central university and an institution of national importance.[79] The state has higher education institutes of national importance including the Indian Statistical Institute, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, the Indian Institute of Management Calcutta (the first management institute in India of its kind) and the National Institute Of Technology, Durgapur (formerly Regional Engineering College, Durgapur).
[edit] Media
Anandabazar Patrika, a news daily published from Kolkata in Bengali.

West Bengal had 505 published newspapers in 2005,[80] of which 389 were in Bengali.[80] Ananda Bazar Patrika, published from Kolkata with 1,234,122 daily copies, has the largest circulation for a single-edition, regional language newspaper in India.[80] Other major Bengali newspapers are Aajkaal, Bartaman, Sangbad Pratidin, Uttarbanga Sambad and Ganashakti. The Times of India, Hindustan Times, The Telegraph, The Statesman and Asian Age, are some of the newspapers published in English. Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi, Gujarati, Oriya, Urdu, Punjabi and Nepali are also read by a select readership.

Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Bengali, Nepali, Hindi, English and international channels via cable. Bengali 24-hour television news channels include STAR Ananda, 24 Ghanta and Kolkata TV. All India Radio is a public radio station. Private FM stations are available only in cities like Kolkata, Siliguri and Asansol. BSNL, Reliance Infocomm, Tata Indicom, Vodafone Essar, Aircel and Airtel are available cellular phone operators. Broadband internet is available in select towns and cities and is provided by the state-run BSNL and by other private companies. Dial-up access is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers.
[edit] Sports
Eden Gardens in Kolkata

Cricket and football (soccer) are popular sports in the state. Kolkata is one of the major centers for football in India[81] and houses top national clubs such as East Bengal, Mohun Bagan and Mohammedan Sporting Club. Indian sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi are also played. Calcutta Polo Club is considered as the oldest polo club of the world,[82] and the Royal Calcutta Golf Club is the oldest of its kind outside Great Britain.[83]

West Bengal has several large stadiums—The Eden Gardens is one of only two 100,000-seat cricket amphitheaters in the world.[84] Salt Lake Stadium—a multi-use stadium—is the world's third highest-capacity football stadium.[85][86] Calcutta Cricket and Football Club is the second-oldest cricket club in the world.[87] National and international sports events are also held in Durgapur, Siliguri and Kharagpur.[88] Notable sports persons from West Bengal include former Indian national cricket captain Sourav Ganguly, Olympic tennis bronze medallist Leander Paes, chess grand master Dibyendu Barua. Sourav Ganguly is the most successful left hand batsman of India. With Sachin Tendulkar he formed the most successful One Day opening batting pair and he also has 11,363 runs in ODI.[89][90]

Other major sporting icons over the years include famous football players such as Chuni Goswami, PK Banerjee and Sailen Manna as well as swimmer Mihir Sen and athlete Jyotirmoyee Sikdar (winner of gold medals at the Asian Games).
[edit] Notes

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4. ^ James Heitzman and Robert L. Worden, ed (1989). "Early History, 1000 B.C.-A.D. 1202". Bangladesh: A country study. Library of Congress. http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/bdtoc.html.
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History of Assam

2009-10-22T22:14:00.000-07:00

Major kingdoms of Assam
Main article: Kamarupa (History)

The historical account of Assam begins with the establishment of Pushya Varman's Varman dynasty in the 4th century in the Kamarupa kingdom, which marks the beginning of Ancient Assam. This dynasty was most likely of aboriginal origin, but drew its lineage from Narakasura. The kingdom reached its zenith under Bhaskarvarman in the 7th century. Xuanzang visited his court and left behind a significant account. Bhaskar Varman died without leaving behind an issue and the control of the country passed to Salasthamba, who established the Mlechchha dynasty. After the fall of the Mlechchha dynasty in the late 9th century, a new ruler, Brahmapala was elected, who established the Pala dynasty. The last Pala king was removed by the Gaur king, Ramapala, in 1110. But the two subsequent kings, Timgyadeva and Vaidyadeva, though established by the Gaur kings, ruled mostly as independents and issued grants under the old Kamarupa seals. The fall of subsequent kings and the rise of individual kingdoms in the 12th century in place of the Kamarupa kingdom marked the end of the Kamarupa kingdom and the period of Ancient Assam.
[edit] Medieval Assam
A typical octagonal Ahom coin issued by Suramphaa Rajeswar Singha (1751-1769) of the Ahom dynasty

See: Kamata kingdom, Ahom kingdom, Kachari kingdom, Chutiya kingdom, Bhuyan chieftains.

The beginning of Medieval Assam is marked by the rise of the Khen dynasty of the Kamata kingdom, established by Prithu in the western part of the old Kamarupa Kingdom, and the beginning of attacks by the Turks of Bengal. The Kamata kingdom, named after the capital at Kamatapur, was frequently attacked by the rulers of Bengal, and Alauddin Hussain Shah finally removed the last Khen king in 1498. But Hussein Shah and subsequent rulers could not consolidate their rule in the Kamata kingdom, mainly due to the revolt by the Bhuyan chieftains and other local groups. In the 16th century Viswa Singha of the Koch tribe established the Koch dynasty in the Kamata kingdom. The Koch dynasty reached its peak under his sons, Nara Narayan and Chilarai.

In the eastern part of the old Kamarupa kingdom, the Kachari and the Chutiya kingdoms arose, with portions of the north bank of the Brahmaputra river controlled by the Bhuyan chieftains. In the tract between the Kachari and the Chutiya kingdoms, a Shan group, led by Sukaphaa, established the Ahom kingdom. The Ahom kingdom in the course of time expanded into the Chutiya kingdom to its north and pushed the Kachari kingdom further south. After the death of Nara Narayan of the Koch dynasty in the late 16th century, the Kamata kingdom broke into Koch Bihar in the west and Koch Hajo in the east. The rivalry between the two kingdoms resulted in the former allying with the Mughals and the latter with the Ahoms. Most of the 17th century saw the Ahom-Mughal conflicts, in which the Ahoms held the expansive Mughals at bay epitomized in the Battle of Saraighat of 1671, and which finally ended in 1682 with the defeat of the Mughals at Itakhuli—and the Ahom kingdom reached its westernmost boundary. Though the Ahom kingdom saw itself as the inheritor of the glory of the erstwhile Kamarupa kingdom and aspired to extend itself to the Karatoya river, it could never do so; though an Ahom general, Ton Kham under Swargadeo Suhungmung, reached the river once when he pursued a retreating invading army in the 16th century.

After the Ahom kingdom reached its zenith, problems within the kingdom arose in the 18th century, when it lost power briefly to rebels of the Moamoria rebellion. Though the Ahoms recaptured power, it was beset with problems, leading to the Burmese invasion of Assam in the early 19th century. With the defeat of the Burmese in the First Anglo-Burmese war and the subsequent Treaty of Yandaboo, control of Assam passed into the hands of the British, which marks the end of the Medieval period.
[edit] Colonial Assam
Main article: Colonial Assam
[edit] British annexation of Assam

After the Burmese occupied Assam, the British began their campaign against the Burmese. In 1824, lower Assam (originally Koch Hajo) was formally annexed. The following year the British defeated the Burmese in upper Assam leading to the Treaty of Yandaboo. In this war against the Burmese the Ahoms did not help the British. In March 1828, lower Assam was formally annexed. In the same year, the Kachari kingdom was annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse after the king Govinda Chandra was killed. In 1832, the Khasi king surrendered and the British increased their influence over the Jaintia ruler. In 1833, upper Assam became a British protectorate under the erstwhile ruler of the Ahom kingdom, Purandhar Singha, but in 1838 the region was formally annexed into the British empire. With the annexation of the Maran/Matak territory in the east in 1839, the annexation of Assam was complete.
[edit] Colonial rule

Bengal Presidency (1826-1873): Assam was included as a part of the Bengal Presidency. The annexation of upper Assam is attributed to the successful manufacture of tea in 1837, and the beginning of the Assam Company in 1839. Under the Wasteland Rules of 1838, it became nearly impossible for natives to start plantations. After the liberalization of the rules in 1854, there was a land rush. The Chinese staff that was imported earlier for the cultivation of tea left Assam in 1843, when tea plantations came to be tended by local labor solely, mainly by those belonging to the Kachari group. From 1859 central Indian labor was imported for the tea plantations. This labor, based on an unbreakable contract, led to a virtual slavery of this labor group. The conditions in which they were transported to Assam were so horrific that about 10% never survived the journey. The colonial government already had monopoly over the opium trade.

There were immediate protests and revolts against the British occupation. In 1828, two years after the Treaty of Yandaboo, Gomdhar Konwar rose in revolt against the British, but he was easily suppressed. In 1830 Dhananjoy Burhagohain, Piyali Phukan and Jiuram Medhi rose in revolt, and they were sentenced to death. In the Indian rebellion of 1857, the people of Assam offered resistance in the form of non-cooperation, and Maniram Dewan and Piyali Baruah were executed for their roles. In 1861 peasants of Nagaon gathered at Phulaguri for a raiz mel (peoples' assembly) to protest against taxes on betel-nut and paan. Lt. Singer, a British officer got into a fracas with the peasants and was killed, after which the protests were violently suppressed.

Chief Commissioner's Province (1874-1905): In 1874, the Assam region was separated from the Bengal Presidency, Sylhet was added to it and its status was upgraded to a Chief Commissioner's Province. The capital was at Shillong. The people of Sylhet protested the inclusion in Assam. Assamese, which was replaced by Bengali as the official language in 1837, was reinstated alongside Bengali. In 1889, oil was discovered at Digboi giving rise to an oil industry. In this period Nagaon witnessed starvation deaths, and there was a decrease in the indigenous population, which was more than adequately compensated by the immigrant labor. Colonialism was well entrenched, and the tea, oil and coal-mining industries were putting increasing pressure on the agricultural sector which was lagging behind.

The peasants, burdened under the opium monopoly and the usury by money lenders, rose again in revolt. Numerous raiz mels decided against paying the taxes. The protests culminated in a bayonet charge against the protesters at Patharughat in 1894. At least 15 were left dead and in the violent repression that followed villagers were tortured and their properties were destroyed or looted. In 1903, Assam Association was formed with Manik Chandra Baruah as the first secretary.

Eastern Bengal and Assam under Lt. Governor (1906-1912): Bengal was partitioned and East Bengal was added to the Chief Commissioner's Province. The new region, now ruled by a Lt. Governor, had its capital at Dhaka. This province had a 15-member legislative council in which Assam had two seats. The members for these seats were recommended (not elected) by rotating groups of public bodies.

The Partition of Bengal was strongly protested in Bengal, and the people of Assam were not happy either. The partition was finally annulled by a royal decree in 1911. The Swadeshi movement (1905-1908) from this period, went largely unfelt in Assam, though it stirred some, most notably Ambikagiri Raychoudhury.

Beginning 1905 peasants from East Bengal began settling down in the riverine tracts (char) of the Brahmaputra valley encouraged by the colonial government to increase agricultural production. Between 1905 and 1921, the immigrant population from East Bengal increased four folds. The immigration continued in post colonial times, giving rise to the Assam Agitation of 1979.

Assam Legislative Council (1912-1920): The administrative unit was reverted to a Chief Commissioner's Province (Assam plus Sylhet), with a Legislative Council added. The Council had 25 members, of which the Chief Commissioner and 13 nominated members formed the bulk. The other members were elected by local public bodies like municipalities, local boards, landholders, tea planters and Muslims.

As Assam got sucked into the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Assam Association slowly transformed itself into the Assam Pradesh Congress Committee (with 5 seats in AICC) in 1920-21.

Dyarchy (1921-1937): Under the Government of India Act 1919 the Assam Legislative Council membership was increased to 53, of which 33 were elected by special constituencies. The powers of the Council were increased too; but in effect, the official group, consisting of the Europeans, the nominated members etc. had the most influence.

Assam Legislative Assembly (1937-1947): Under the Government of India Act 1935, the Council was expanded into an Assembly of 108 members, with even more powers. The period saw the sudden rise of Gopinath Bordoloi and Muhammed Saadulah and their tussle for power and influence.
[edit] Post-colonial Assam

In 1979, Assam flared into Assam Agitation (or Assam Movement) a popular movement against illegal immigration. The movement, led AASU and AAGSP, set an agitational program to compel the government to identify and expel illegal immigrants and prevent new immigration. The agitational programs were largely non-violent, but there were incidents of acute violence, like the Nellie massacre. It ended in 1985 following the Assam Accord that was signed by the agitation leaders and the Government of India. The agitation leaders formed a political party, Asom Gana Parishad, which came to power in the state of Assam in the Assembly elections of 1985.

Mughal Empire

2009-10-22T22:13:00.000-07:00

The Mughal Empire (Persian: شاهان مغول Shāhān-e Moġul; self-designation: گوركانى - Gūrkānī)[1][2] was an Islamic and Persianate[3] imperial power of the Indian subcontinent which began in 1526, invaded and ruled most of Hindustan (South Asia) by the late 17th and early 18th centuries, and ended in the mid-19th century.[4] The Mughal Emperors were descendants of the Timurids, and at the height of their power around 1700, they controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent — extending from Bengal in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south.[5] Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 130 million, over a territory of over 4 million km² (1.5 million mi²).[6]

Following 1725 the empire declined rapidly, weakened by wars of succession, agrarian crises fueling local revolts, the growth of religious intolerance, the rise of Maratha Empire as well as Durrani Empire and Sikh Empire and finally British colonialism. The last king, Bahadur Zafar Shah II, whose rule was restricted to the city of Delhi, was imprisoned and exiled by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

The "classic period" of the Empire started with the accession of Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar, better known as Akbar the Great, in 1556. It ended with the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707,[7][8] although the Empire continued for another 150 years. During this period, the Empire was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting the different regions. All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period.

The name Mughal is derived from the original homelands of the Timurids, the Central Asian steppes once conquered by Genghis Khan and hence known as Moghulistan, "Land of Mongols". Although early Mughals spoke the Chagatai language and maintained Turko-Mongol practices, they were essentially Persianized.[9] They transferred the Persian literature and culture[9] to India, thus forming the base for the Indo-Persian culture.[9]

"Mughal" is also the source for the modern word "mogul" (see below).
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Early history
* 2 Mughal dynasty
o 2.1 Decline
* 3 List of Mughal Emperors
* 4 Influence on the Indian Subcontinent
o 4.1 Mughal Society
* 5 Modern connotations
* 6 Gallery
* 7 Science and technology
o 7.1 Astronomy
o 7.2 Technology
* 8 See also
* 9 References
o 9.1 Notes
o 9.2 Further reading
* 10 External links

Early history

The foundation for the empire was established around the early 1500s by the Timurid prince Babur, when he took control of the Doab and eastern regions of Khorasan, which controlled the fertile Sindh region and the lower valley of the Indus River.[10] In 1526, Babur defeated the last of the Delhi Sultans, Ibrahim Shah Lodi, at the First Battle of Panipat. To secure his newly founded kingdom, Babur then had to face the formidable Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga of Chittor, at the Battle of Khanwa. Rana Sanga offered stiff resistance but was defeated due to treachery within his own ranks.

Babur's son Humayun succeeded him in 1530 but suffered major reversals at the hands of the Pashtun Sher Shah Suri and effectively lost most of the fledgling empire before it could grow beyond a minor regional state. From 1540 Humayun became a ruler in exile, reaching the Court of the Safavid rule in 1554 while his force still controlled some fortresses and small regions. But when the Pashtuns fell into disarray with the death of Sher Shah Suri, Humayun returned with a mixed army, raised more troops and managed to reconquer Delhi in 1555.

Humayun crossed the rough terrain of the Makran people with his wife, but left behind their infant son Jalaluddin to spare him the rigours of the journey. Akbar, as Jalaluddin would be better known in his later years, was born in the town of Sindh in where he was raised by his uncle Askari. There he became an excellent outdoorsman, horseman, and hunter, and learned the arts of war. The resurgent Humayun then conquered the central plateau around Delhi, but months later died in an accident, leaving the realm unsettled and in war.
The Agra Fort in Agra, India was the official residence of the Mughal Emperors until the collapse of the empire.

Akbar succeeded his father on 14 February, 1556, while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah Suri for the throne of Delhi. He soon won his eighteenth victory at age 21 or 22. He became known as Akbar, as he was a wise ruler, set fair but steep taxes. He was born in a Hindu Rajput household. He was a shrewder administrator than his predecessors and saw that the proud Hindu populace of India would not just cave in and convert to Islam which was the main goal of Mughal rulers before him. He saw this stiff resistance from the proud and strong Hindu heritage as the main reason why the Mughals had not succeeded in annexing the complete geographical extent of India. So to be more organic and truly royal in his approach he gave up the main agenda of Islamic conquest of spreading religion. He investigated the production in a certain area and taxed inhabitants one-fifth of their agricultural produce. He also set up an efficient bureaucracy and was tolerant of religious differences which softened the resistance by the locals. He made alliances with Rajputs and appointed Hindu generals and administrators. Later in life, he also came up with his own brand of religion based on tolerance and inspired by views from both Hinduism and Islam. However, after his death this religion did not catch on but is still remembered for its noble intentions of bringing people and minds together.

Jahangir, son of Emperor Akbar, ruled the empire from 1605–1627. In October 1627, Shah Jahan, son of Emperor Jahangir succeeded to the throne, where he inherited a vast and rich empire. At mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in the world. Shah Jahan commissioned the famous Taj Mahal (1630–1653) in Agra which was built by the Persian architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri as a tomb for Shah Jahan's wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died giving birth to their 14th child. He proceeded to apparently have the architect’s hands cut off so that he would never be able to build a more beautiful building.[11] By 1700 the empire reached its peak under the leadership of Aurangzeb Alamgir with major parts of present day India, Pakistan and most of Afghanistan under its domain. Aurangzeb was the last of what are now referred to as the Great Mughal kings.
Mughal dynasty
Extent of Mughal empire under Akbar the Great.

The Mughal Empire was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent between the mid-16th century and the early 18th century. Founded in 1526, it officially survived until 1858, when it was supplanted by the British Raj. The dynasty is sometimes referred to as the Timurid dynasty as Babur was descended from Timur.

The Mughal dynasty was founded when Babur, hailing from Ferghana (Modern Uzbekistan), invaded parts of northern India and defeated Ibrahim Shah Lodhi, the ruler of Delhi, at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. The Mughal Empire superseded the Delhi Sultanate as rulers of northern India. In time, the state thus founded by Babur far exceeded the bounds of the Delhi Sultanate, eventually encompassing a major portion of India and earning the appellation of Empire. A brief interregnum (1540-1555) during the reign of Babur's son, Humayun, saw the rise of the Afghan Suri Dynasty under Sher Shah Suri, a competent and efficient ruler in his own right. However, Sher Shah's untimely death and the military incompetence of his successors enabled Humayun to regain his throne in 1555. However, Humayun died a few months later, and was succeeded by his son, the 13-year-old Akbar the Great.

The greatest portions of Mughal expansion was accomplished during the reign of Akbar (1556-1605). The empire was maintained as the dominant force of the present-day Indian subcontinent for a hundred years further by his successors Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. The first six emperors, who enjoyed power both ‘’de jure’’ and ‘’de facto’’, are usually referred to by just one name, a title adopted upon his accession by each Emperor. The relevant title is bolded in the list below.
17th Century Badshahi Masjid built by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore

Akbar the Great initiated certain important policies, such as religious liberalism (abolition of the jizya tax), inclusion of Hindus in the affairs of the empire, and political alliance/marriage with the Hindu Rajput caste, that were innovative for his milieu; he also adopted some policies of Sher Shah Suri, such as the division of the empire into sarkars, in his administration of the empire. These policies, which undoubtedly served to maintain the power and stability of the empire, as the fiercely proud Hindu populace had shown stiff resistance and no signs of meekly converting to the whims of Islamic conquest in its years in the Indian subcontinent. These were preserved by his two immediate successors but were discarded by Aurangzeb, who followed a more strict interpretation of Islam and followed a stricter policy of intolerance to the practice of religions than his own. Furthermore, Aurangzeb spent nearly his entire career seeking to expand his realm into the Deccan and south India, Assam in the east; this venture sapped the resources of the empire while provoking strong resistance from the Marathas, Sikhs of Punjab, Ahoms of Assam and some elements within Hindu Rajputs. Ahoms in Assam successfully resisted the mughal invasions, the last battle being the Battle of Saraighat. It is interesting to note in this regard that while the Mughals ruled India for a nearly three hundred years they never really ruled the complete geographical extent of the subcontinent that is known as India in the modern day context. The power was mostly centered around Delhi which was for historical reasons considered a strategic stronghold but there always existed strong independent Hindu kingdoms which maintained their sovereignty and offered stiff resistance to Mughal expansionist fantasies.
Decline
Sikh and Maratha states gained territory after Mughal empire's decline. Map showing territories in 1700 and 1792

After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the empire fell into decline. Beginning with Bahadur Shah I, the Mughal Emperors progressively declined in power and became figureheads, being initially controlled by sundry courtiers and later by various rising warlords. In the 18th century, the Empire suffered the depredations of invaders like Nadir Shah of Persia and Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan, who repeatedly sacked Delhi, the Mughal capital. The greater portion of the empire's territories in India passed to the Marathas who sacked Delhi, forestalling the once powerful and mighty empire to just lone city before falling to the British. Other adversaries were Sikh Empire and Hyderabad Nizams. In 1804, the blind and powerless Shah Alam II formally accepted the protection of the British East India Company. The British had already begun to refer to the weakened Mughal as "King of Delhi" rather than "Emperor of India", a usage, formalized in 1805, in the same year shah Alam II died, the British disbanded the Mughals and the army in 1805. The glory and once mighty Mughal army was no longer in existence, only the guards of the Red Fort were spared to serve with the King Of Delhi, which avoided the uncomfortable implication that the British sovereign was outranked by the Indian monarch. Nonetheles, for a few decades afterwards, the BEIC continued to rule the areas under its control as the nominal servants of the emperor, and in his name. In 1827, even these courtesies were dispensed with. After some rebels in the Sepoy Rebellion declared their allegiance to Shah Alam's descendant, Bahadur Shah Zafar (mostly symbolic as he was just a figurehead for the purpose of rebellion), the British decided to abolish the institution altogether. They deposed the last Mughal Emperor in 1857 and exiled him to Burma, where he died in 1862. Thus the Mughal dynasty came to an end, which contributed a momentous chapter to the history of South Asia.

There are still many Mughals living in the Indian Subcontinent. The term Mughal in the current socio-political context also does not have decisive meaning as the blood lines of the original Mughals are now mixed with the local population and have South-Asian identities which are stronger than any original Turkic or Mongloid origins. The language spoken by the Mughals also slowly adapted itself to a form of Hindustani known as Urdu. Though a script was invented for it close to Arabic (known as Nastaliq) the basic vocabulary is mostly Sanskrit based and it is very similar in form and content to modern day Hindi.
List of Mughal Emperors
Main article: Mughal emperors

Certain important particulars regarding the Mughal Emperors is tabulated below:
Emperor Birth Reign Period Death Notes
Zaheeruddin Babur Feb 23, 1483 1526-1530 Dec 26, 1530 Founder of the Mughal Dynasty.
Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun Mar 6, 1508 1530-1540 Jan 1556 Reign interrupted by Suri Dynasty. Youth and inexperience at ascension led to his being regarded as a less effective ruler than usurper, Sher Shah Suri.
Sher Shah Suri 1472 1540-1545 May 1545 Deposed Humayun and led the Suri Dynasty.
Islam Shah Suri c.1500 1545-1554 1554 2nd and last ruler of the Suri Dynasty, claims of sons Sikandar and Adil Shah were eliminated by Humayun's restoration.
Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun Mar 6, 1508 1555-1556 Jan 1556 Restored rule was more unified and effective than initial reign of 1530-1540; left unified empire for his son, Akbar.
Jalaluddin Mohammed Akbar Nov 14, 1542 1556-1605 Oct 27, 1605 Akbar greatly expanded the Empire and is regarded as the most illustrious ruler of the Mughal Dynasty as he set up the empire's various institutions; he married Mariam-uz-Zamani, a Rajput princess. He eventually founded Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion based on Hinduism and Islam. One of his most famous construction marvels was the Lahore Fort.
Nuruddin Mohammed Jahangir Oct 1569 1605-1627 1627 Jahangir set the precedent for sons rebelling against their Emperor fathers. Opened first relations with the British East India Company. Reportedly was an alcoholic and his wife Empress Nur Jahan became the real power behind the throne and competently ruled in his place.
Shahabuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan Jan 5, 1592 1627-1658 1666 Under him, Mughal art and architecture reached their zenith; constructed the Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid, Red Fort, Jahangir mausoleum and Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. Deposed and imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb.
Mohiuddin Mohammed Aurangzeb Alamgir Oct 21, 1618 1658-1707 Mar 3, 1707 More conservative in behavior and far less extravagant as the previous emperors; brought back Islamic law, and the jizya tax. He is well-known for his personal piety and for leading an extremely simple and pious life. His conquests expanded the empire to its greatest extent, incorporating much of southern India;A major and last desperate attempt was also made to conquer Assam during his rule but with no success at Battle of Saraighat; the over-stretched empire would face challenges after his death.
Bahadur Shah I
a.k.a Shah Alaam I Oct 14, 1643 1707-1712 Feb 1712 First of the Mughal emperors to preside over a steady and severe decline in the territories under the empire's control and military power. After his reign, the emperor became a progressively insignificant figurehead.
Jahandar Shah 1664 1712-1713 Feb 1713 He was merely a puppet in the hands of his Chief Minister Zulfikar Khan. The acts of Jahandar Shah brought down the prestige of the Mughal Empire.
Furrukhsiyar 1683 1713-1719 1719 In 1717 he granted a firman to the English East India Company granting them duty free trading rights for Bengal, and confirmed their position in India.
Rafi Ul-Darjat Unknown 1719 1719
Rafi Ud-Daulat
a.k.a Shah Jahan II Unknown 1719 1719
Nikusiyar Unknown 1719 1743
Muhammad Ibrahim Unknown 1720 1744
Muhammad Shah 1702 1719-1720, 1720-1748 1748 Suffered the invasion of Nadir-Shah of Persia in 1739.
Ahmad Shah Bahadur 1725 1748-54 1754
Alamgir II 1699 1754-1759 1759
Shah Jahan III Unknown In 1759 1770s
Shah Alaam II 1728 1759-1806 1806 Suffered the invasion of Ahmed-Shah-Abdali in 1761; granted the 'Nizami' of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the BEIC in 1765, formally accepted the protection of the BEIC in 1803.
Akbar Shah II 1760 1806-1837 1837 Titular figurehead under British protection
Bahadur Shah Zafar 1775 1837-1857 1862 Deposed by the British and exiled to Burma following the Great Mutiny.
Influence on the Indian Subcontinent
The Taj Mahal in Agra, India built by the Mughal Empire
The Red Fort in Delhi was the main palace of the empire during the reign of Shah Jahan.

A major Mughal contribution to the Indian Subcontinent was their unique architecture. Many monuments were built by the Muslim emperors, especially Shahjahan, during the Mughal era including the UNESCO World Heritage Site Taj Mahal, which is known to be one of the finer examples of Mughal architecture. Other World Heritage Sites includes the Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Agra Fort and Lahore Fort.

The palaces, tombs and forts built by the dynasty stands today in Delhi, Aurangabad, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sheikhupura and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh.[12] With few memories of Central Asia, Babur's descendents absorbed traits and customs of the Indian Subcontinent[13], and became more or less naturalised. The Mughal period would be the first to witness the blending of Indian, Iranian and Central Asian customs and traditions.

Contributions such as[14]:

* Centralised, imperialistic government which brought together many smaller kingdoms.[15]
* Persian art and culture amalgamated with Indian art and culture.[16]
* New trade routes to Arab and Turkic lands.
* The development of Mughlai cuisine.[17]
* The Urdu language developed from the Hindi language by borrowing heavily from Persian as well as Arabic and Chaghatai Turkic. Urdu developed as a result of the fusion of the Indian and Islamic cultures during the Mughal period. Modern Hindi which uses Sanskrit-based vocabulary along with loan words from Persian and Arabic, is mutually intelligible with Urdu.[18]
* Mughal Architecture found its way into local Indian architecture, most conspicuously in the palaces built by Rajputs and Sikh rulers.
* Landscape gardening

Although the land the Mughals once ruled has separated into what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan their influence can still be seen widely today. Tombs of the emperors are spread throughout India, Afghanistan[19] and Pakistan. There are 16 million descendants spread throughout the Subcontinent and possibly the world.[20][21]
Mughal Society
The Alamgiri Gate is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort built during the reign of Aurangzeb.

The Indian economy remained as prosporous under the Mughals as it was, because of the creation of a road system and a uniform currency, together with the unification of the country. Manufactured goods and peasant-grown cash crops were sold throughout the world. Key industries included shipbuilding (the Indian shipbuilding industry was as advanced as the European, and Indians sold ships to European firms), textiles, and steel. The Mughals maintained a small fleet, which merely carried pilgrims to Mecca, imported a few Arab horses, transported soldiers over rivers, and fought pirates; however, the Siddis of Janjira and the Marathas sent ships to China, and the eastern limits of Africa, together with some Mughal subjects carrying out private-sector trade. Cities and towns boomed under the Mughals; however, for the most part, they were military and political centres, not manufacturing or commerce centres. Only those guilds which produced goods for the bureaucracy made goods in the towns; most industry was based in rural areas.

The nobility was a heterogeneous body; while it primarily consisted of Rajput aristocrats and foreigners from Muslim countries, people of all castes and nationalities could gain a title from the emperor. The middle class of openly affluent traders consisted of a few wealthy merchants living in the coastal towns; the bulk of the merchants pretended to be poor to avoid taxation. The bulk of the people were poor. The standard of living of the poor was as low as, or somewhat higher than, the standard of living of the Indian poor under the British Raj; whatever benefits the British brought with canals and modern industry were neutralized by rising population growth, high taxes, and the collapse of traditional industry in the nineteenth century.
Modern connotations

An alternate spelling of the name of the empire, "Mogul", is the source of the modern word mogul.[22] In popular news jargon, this word denotes a successful business magnate who has built for himself a vast (and often monopolistic) empire in one or more specific industries. The usage is a reference to the expansive and wealthy empire built by the Mughal kings. Rupert Murdoch, for example, is called a news mogul.
Gallery

Humayun's Tomb, New Delhi

Lahore Fort, Lahore

Badshahi Mosque, Lahore

Abdul Hasan Asaf Khan Tomb, father of Mumtaz Mahal, wife of Shah Jahan.

Bibi ka maqbara, Aurangabad

The Tomb of Anarkali, Pakistan

Shalimar Garden, Lahore

Fatehpur Sikri, India
Science and technology
Astronomy

In the Mughal Empire, the 16th and 17th centuries saw a synthesis between Islamic astronomy and Indian astronomy, where Islamic observational techniques and instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Muslim and Hindu astronomers in India continued to make advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi, while Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. The instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition, and the computational techniqes from the Hindu tradition.[23][24] In particular, one of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the seamless celestial globe (see Technology below).
Technology

Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian-Indian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire, invented the autocannon, the earliest multi-shot gun. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder.[25]

The first prefabricated homes and movable structures were invented in 16th century Mughal India by Akbar the Great. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.[26]

Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, the seamless globe and celestial globe were invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-90 CE), and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology. These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting while producing these seamless globes.[27]

Muslim history

2009-10-22T22:11:00.000-07:00

This article is about the history of Islam as a culture and polity. For the history of the Islamic faith, see Spread of Islam. For Islamic civilization, see Islamic civilization. For military conquests, see Islamic conquests. For chronology, see Timeline of Islamic history.

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Islam
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Muslim history involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. The history of Islam began in Arabia with Muslim Prophet Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century.

Like most world religions, the historical evolution of Islam had a significant impact on the political, economic, and military and beyond its primary geographic areas. Islam's historical development has affected both inside and outside the Islamic world. The concept of the Islamic world is useful in observing the different periods of Islamic history; similarly useful is an understanding of the identification with a quasi-political community of believers, or ummah, on the part of Islam's practitioners down the centuries. Islamic culture encourages identification with a quasi-political community of believers or the ummah, and this principle has influenced the behavior of a number of players in history. The history of Islam is closely tied to the political, economic, and military.

A century after the death of Muhammad, an Islamic empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. The subsequent empires of the Umayyads, Abbasids, the Fatimids, the Mughals, the Safavids, and Ottomans were among the largest and most powerful in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was much investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and especially, the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.

Later, in the eighteenth century and nineteenth century, many Islamic regions fell under the tutelage of European imperial powers. After the First World War, the remnants of the Ottoman empire were parcelled out as European protectorates. Since 1924, there has been no major widely-accepted claim to the caliphate (which had been last claimed by the Ottomans).

Although affected by various ideologies such as communism, during much of the twentieth century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early twenty-first century. The fast-growing Western interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world of the twenty-first century.[1]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Origins
* 2 Early Caliphate
o 2.1 Timeline
o 2.2 Al-Rashidun - "The Rightly-Guided Caliphs"
o 2.3 Abbasids - "Islamic Golden Age"
o 2.4 Regional powers
o 2.5 The Fatimid Empire
o 2.6 The Iberian peninsula under the Umayyads and the Berber dynasties
* 3 The Crusades
* 4 The Mamluks
* 5 Islam in Africa
o 5.1 Islam in Maghreb
o 5.2 Islam in East Africa
o 5.3 Islam in West Africa
* 6 Islam in Asia
o 6.1 Indian Subcontinent
o 6.2 China
o 6.3 Southeast Asia
* 7 Mongol invasions
* 8 Three Muslim empires of the Early Modern Era
o 8.1 Mughal Empire
o 8.2 Safavid Empire
o 8.3 Ottoman Empire
* 9 Wahhabism
* 10 The 20th century
o 10.1 Demise of the Ottoman Empire
o 10.2 Partition of India
o 10.3 Arab-Israeli conflict
o 10.4 Oil wealth
o 10.5 Two Iranian revolutions
* 11 The 21st century
o 11.1 Islam in Turkey
* 12 Dynasties of Muslim Rulers
* 13 See also
* 14 Notes
* 15 References and further reading
* 16 External links

[edit] Origins
Main articles: Muhammad in Mecca, Wahy, Origin and development of the Qur'an, Hijra (Islam), Muhammad in Medina, Conquest of Mecca, Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca, and Succession to Muhammad

According to the traditionalist view, the Qur'an began with revelations on Muhammad's divine revelations in AD 610. The verses of the Qur'an were written down and memorized during his life. Mecca was conquered by the Muslims in the year AD 630. In 628 the Meccan tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina had signed a truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace, which was broken when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of Bakr, attacked the tribe of Khuza'ah, who were allies of the Muslims. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of Rashidun Caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima.

Andrey Korotayev and his colleagues suggest to view the origins of Islam against the background of the 6th century AD Arabian socioecological crisis whose model is specified by Korotayev and his colleagues through the study of climatological, seismological, volcanological and epidemiological history of the period. They find that most sociopolitical systems of the Arabs reacted to the socioecological crisis by getting rid of the rigid supratribal political structures (kingdoms and chiefdoms) which started posing a real threat to their very survival. The decades of fighting which led to the destruction of the most of the Arabian kingdoms and chiefdoms (reflected in Ayyam al-`Arab tradition) led to the elaboration of some definite "antiroyal" freedom-loving tribal ethos. At the beginning of the 7th century a tribe which would recognize themselves as subjects of some terrestrial supratribal political authority, a "king", risked to lose its honour. However, this seems not to be applicable to the authority of another type, the "celestial" one. At the meantime the early 7th century evidences the merging of the Arabian tradition of prophecy and the Arabian Monotheist "Rahmanist" tradition which produced "the Arabian prophetic movement". The Monotheist "Rahmanist" prophets appear to have represented a supratribal authority just of the type many Arab tribes were looking for at this very time, which seems to explain to a certain extent those prophets' political success (including the extreme political success of Muhammad) (Andrey Korotayev, Vladimir Klimenko, and Dmitry Proussakov. Origins of Islam: Political-Anthropological and Environmental Context. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 53/3–4 (1999): 243–276). v
[edit] Early Caliphate
Main articles: Caliphate, Arab Empire, and Islamic Golden Age

After Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State: Abu Bakr Siddique, Umar, Uthman and Ali. These first Caliphs are popularly known as the "Rashidun" or "rightly-guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam. After the Rashidun, a series of Caliphates were established. Each caliphate developed its own unique laws based on the sharia. There were at times competing claims to the Sunni caliphate, and the Imams of Ismaili Shi'a Islam, descended from Ali and Muhammad through his daughter Hazrat Fatimah, set up their own caliphate which ruled the Fatimid Empire.
[edit] Timeline

[edit] Al-Rashidun - "The Rightly-Guided Caliphs"
Main articles: Rashidun and Muslim conquests

Following Muhammad's death, a series of four Caliphs lead the Islamic Empire during this period. Starting with Abu Bakr, Omar, Uthman, and ending with Ali.
[edit] Abbasids - "Islamic Golden Age"
Main articles: Abbasid and Islamic Golden Age

The gains of the Ummayad empire were consolidated upon when the Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, with the conquest of the Mediterranean islands including the Balearics and Sicily.[2] The new ruling party had been instated on the wave of dissatisfaction propagated against the Ummayads, cultured mainly by the Abbasid revolutionary, Abu Muslim.[3][4] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "golden age."[5] This was also the case for commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution), and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolution), which prospered, especially under the rule of Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754 — 775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786 — 809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 — 813), and their immediate successors.[6]
Abbasid Caliphate and contemporary states and empires in 820.

Baghdad was made the new capital of the caliphate (moved from the previous capital, Damascus) due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania.[6] It was at this time however, that the caliphate showed signs of fracture and we witness the uprising of regional dynasties. Although the Ummayad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I, was able to flee to Spain and establish an independent caliphate there in 756. In the Maghreb region, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab Aghlabids as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise the authority of the central caliphate. Aghlabid rule was short lived, as they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a new capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as Cairo). Similar was the case in Persia, where the Turkic Ghaznavids managed to snatch power from the Abbasids.[7][8] Whatever temporal power of the Abbasids remained had eventually been consumed by the Seljuq Turks (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia), in 1055.[6]

During this time, expansion continued, sometimes by military warfare, sometimes by peaceful proselytism.[2] The first stage in the conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 — 1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had been conquered. In sub-Saharan West Africa, it was just after the year 1000 that Islam was established. Muslim rulers are known to have been in Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence later, in the 13th century.[2]

During the Abbasid reign, Baghdad became one of the greatest cultural centers of the world. The Abbasids were said to be descendents of Abbas the uncle of Muhammad claiming that they were the 'messiah' or saviours of the people under the Ummayad rule. Abbasid caliphs Harun al-Rashid and Al-Mamun were great patrons of arts and sciences, and enabled these domains to flourish. Islamic philosophy also developed as the Shariah was codified, and the four Madhabs were established and built. This era also saw the rise of classical Sufism. The greatest achievement, however, was completion of the canonical collections of Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and others.[9]
[edit] Regional powers

The Abbasids soon became caught within a three-way of men which got him from behind rivalry of Arabs, Persians and the immigrant Turks.[10] In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.[11] The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. The Emirates, still recognizing the theoretical leadership of the caliphs, drifted into independence, and a brief revival of control was ended with the establishment of rival caliphates. Eventually the Abbasids ruled as puppets for the Buwayhid emirs. During this time, great advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.
[edit] The Fatimid Empire
Al-Hakim Mosque, Cairo, Egypt

The Fatimids had their origins in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria). The dynasty was founded in 909 byˤAbdullāh al-Mahdī Billah, who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammadby way of his daughter Fātima as-Zahra and her husband ˤAlī ibn-Abī-Tālib, the firstShīˤa Imām, hence the name al-Fātimiyyūn "Fatimid".

Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries ofMorocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his newly-built capital in Tunisia.

The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 900s, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a new capital at al-Qāhira(Cairo) in 969.[12] The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed over into Sicily and southernItaly.

Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine,Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz[citation needed]. Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.

Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than on heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, like the Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance was extended even to non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews, who occupied high levels in government based on ability.[citation needed] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, most notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

The Fatimid palace was two parts. it used to be in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street[1].
[edit] The Iberian peninsula under the Umayyads and the Berber dynasties
The interiors of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain decorated with arabesque designs.
Main articles: Al-Andalus, Caliphate of Córdoba, and Taifa

The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair quickly crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. There are some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain Ṭārif in 710 and one, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited by Erwig during the reign of Wamba (672–80). and two reasonably large armies may have been gay in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.[13]

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus. After the Abbasids came to power in the Middle East, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Emir of Córdoba(912-961).[14] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as Córdoba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,[15] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.[16] Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.[17]

The rule of the Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.[18] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of mostly independent states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Party kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms will then weaken the power of the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas such as that of Seville will consequently be forced to enter into alliances with the Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.[19]
[edit] The Crusades
Main article: The Crusades

Beginning in the 8th century C.E. the Christian kingdoms of Spain had begun the Reconquista aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, Pope Urban II, inspired by the perceived holy wars in Spain and implored by the eastern Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the First Crusade from Western Europe which captured Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli and Jerusalem. The Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlled many holy sites of Islam. Saladin, however, restored unity within the Umma by defeating the Fatimids, and was then able to put an end to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187 C.E. Other crusades were launched with at least the nominal intent to recapture the holy city and other holy lands, but hardly more was ever accomplished than the errant looting and occupation of Christian Constantinople, leaving the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire severely weakened and ripe for later conquest. However, the crusaders did manage to weaken Muslim territories preventing them from further expansion into Christendom.
[edit] The Mamluks

In 1250 C.E., the short-lived Ayyubid dynasty (established by Saladin) was overthrown by slave regiments, and a new dynasty—the Mamluks—was born. The Mamluks, who were Turkic, soon expanded into Palestine, expelled the remaining Crusader states and repelled the Mongol attempt to invade Syria (see Battle of Ain Jalut). Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest period of time between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250-1517).[20]
[edit] Islam in Africa
Main article: Islam in Africa

The first continent outside of Arabia to have an Islamic history was Africa, particularly Abyssinia (modern day Ethiopia via modern day Eritrea).
[edit] Islam in Maghreb

This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history, with a number being of historical importance.

The Idrisid dynasty were the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first sultan Idris I.

The Almoravid dynasty a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a great part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.

The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians," were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all northern Africa as far as Egypt, together withAl-Andalus.
[edit] Islam in East Africa

Islam in the East Africa can be dated back to the founding of the religion and the beginning with the hijra; in 615, when a group of Muslims were counseled by Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Abyssinia (an act known as the First migration to Abyssinia), which was ruled by, in Muhammad's estimation, a pious Christian king named al-Najashi (Negus, King of Abyssinia). Moreover, Islamic tradition states that the first muezzin Bilal al-Habeshi, one of the foremost companions of Muhammad, was from Abyssinia (Habasha).[21]

There were Islamic governments in Tanzania. The people of Zayd were allegedly the first Muslims to immigrate to East Africa.[citation needed] Islam came to east Africa mainly through trade routes.[citation needed] The African peoples that lived along these routes became converts due to the close contact they had with Arab traders in areas like Tabora, from which they affected the manners of Muslims, this leading to eventual conversion neither with encouragement nor discouragement by the Muslim Arabs. In pre-colonial East Africa, the structure of Islamic authority was held up through the Ulema (wanawyuonis, in Swahili language). Their base was mainly in Zanzibar. These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in East Africa at this time; especially before territorial boundaries were established. This is because the majority of Muslims lived within the sphere of influence of the Sultanate in Zanzibar, the chief Qadi there being recognized for having the final religious authority.[22]
[edit] Islam in West Africa

Usman dan Fodio after the Fulani War, found himself in command of the largest state in Africa, the Fulani Empire. Dan Fodio worked to establish an efficient government, one grounded in Islamic laws. Already aged at the beginning of the war, dan Fodio retired in 1815 passing the title of Sultan of Sokoto to his son Muhammed Bello.
Wiki letter w.svg This section requires expansion.
[edit] Islam in Asia
Main article: Islam in Asia
[edit] Indian Subcontinent
Main article: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent

See also: Islam in India, Islam in Pakistan

Islamic rule came to the region in the 8th century, when Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh, (Pakistan). Muslim conquests were expanded under Mahmud and the Ghaznavids until the late twelfth century, when the Ghurids overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in northern India. Qutb-ud-din Aybak, conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanates.

In the fourteenth century, Alauddin Khilji extended Muslim rule south to Gujarat, Rajasthan and Deccan. Various other Muslim dynasties also formed and ruled across India from the 13th to the 18th century such as the Qutb Shahi and the Bahmani, but none rivalled the power and extensive reach of the Mughal Empire at its peak.
[edit] China

China was not a Muslim country, but, it does contain substantial Muslim community.
Further information: History of Islam in China
[edit] Southeast Asia
See also: The spread of Islam in Indonesia (1200 to 1600)

Islam reached the islands of Southeast Asia through Indian Muslim traders from Gujarat near the end of the 13th century.[8] Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay. Coupled with the composing of original Islamic literature in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.[23] By 1292, when Marco Polo visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The Sultanate of Malacca was founded by Parameswara, a Srivijayan Prince in the Malay peninsula. Through trade and commerce, Islam spread to Borneo and Java, Indonesia. By the late 15th century, Islam had been introduced to the Philippines.[citation needed]

As Islam spread, three main Muslim political powers emerged. Aceh, the most important Muslim power, was based firmly in Northern Sumatra. It controlled much of the area between Southeast Asia and India. The Sultunate also attracted Sufi poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula. The Sultanate of Demak was the third power, appearing in Java, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.[24] Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.[8]

Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under the naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, the Aceh Sultanate and Brunei established themselves as centers of Islam in Southeast Asia. Brunei's sultanate remains intact even to this day.[8]
[edit] Mongol invasions
See also: Ilkhanate and Golden Horde

The wave of Mongol invasions, which had initially commenced in the early 13th century under the leadership of Genghis Khan, marked a violent end to the Abbasid era. The Mongol Empire had spread rapidly throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237. With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, Mongol sights were set upon the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother, Hulegu, was made the head of the Mongol Army assigned the task of subduing Baghdad. This was achieved at the Battle of Baghdad (1258), which saw the Abbasids overrun by the superior Mongol army. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and subsequently destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell shortly afterwards, in 1260. Any prospective conquest of Egypt was temporarily delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time.[8]

With Mongol conquest in the east, the Ayyubid dynasty ruling over Egypt had been replaced by a man who was born prince struggled as a slave named Mamluks also known as Lion of Ain Jaloot in 1250. This had been done through the marriage between Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid caliph al-Salih Ayyub, with the Mamluk general Aybak. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After the assassination of Aybak, and the succession of Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and decisively routed the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260. This signalled an adverse shift in fortunes for the Mongols, who were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.[8] With this, the Mamluks were also able to conquer the last of the crusader territories.[citation needed]
[edit] Three Muslim empires of the Early Modern Era

In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires were created: the aforementioned Ottoman Empire in much of the Middle East, the Balkans and Northern Africa; the Safavid Empire in Greater Iran; and the Mughul Empire in South Asia. These new imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder, and more efficient administration.[25] By the end of the 19th century, all three had declined significantly, and by the early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last Muslim empire collapsed.
[edit] Mughal Empire
Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, India.
Main article: Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire was a product of various Central Asian invasions into the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by the Timurid prince Babur in 1526 with the destruction of the Delhi sultanate, with its capital in Agra. Babur's death some years later, and the indecisive rule of his son, Humayun, brought a degree of instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah, through which a string of defeats had been dealt to Humayun, significantly weakened the Mughals. Just a year before his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year old Akbar (later known as Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred through both expansion and administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan came to power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb ruled vast areas include Afghanisthan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[8][26]

The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan for several centuries, before it declined in the early 18th century, which led to India being divided into smaller kingdoms and princely states. The Mughal dynasty was eventually dissolved by the British Empire after the Indian rebellion of 1857.[8][26] It left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings built by the Mughals, include: the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort, the Shalimar Gardens and the Agra Fort. During the empire's reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India, particularly in Gujarat, Bengal and Hyderabad. Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and Iran were very active throughout the region. Consequently, more than a quarter of the population converted to Islam.[26]
[edit] Safavid Empire
Main article: Safavids
Shah Suleiman I and his courtiers, Isfahan, 1670. Painter is Ali Qoli Jabbador, and is kept at The St. Petersburg Institute of Oriental Studies in Russia, ever since it was acquired by Tsar Nicholas II. Note the two Georgian figures with their names at the top left.

The Safavids (Persian: صفویان) were an Iranian dynasty from Iranian Azarbaijan that ruled from 1501 to 1736, and which established Twelver Shi'a Islam as Iran's official religion and united its provinces under a single Iranian sovereignty, thereby reigniting the Persian identity.

Although claiming to be the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the Safavids were originally Sunni (the name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called Safavi). Their origins go back to Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah, an Iranian local dignitary from Iran's north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the State religion, thus giving Iran a separate identity from its Sunni neighbours.

In 1524, Tahmasp acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts in the region. Carpet making became a major industry, gaining new importance in Iran's cities. But the finest of all artistic revivals was the commissioning of the Shahnama. The Shahnama was meant to glorify the reign of the Shah through artistic means. The two-volume copy contained 258 large paintings to illustrate the works of Firdawsi, a Persian poet. The Shah also prohibited the drinking of wine, forbade the use of hashish and ordered the removal of gambling casinos, taverns and brothels.

Tahmasp's grandson, Shah Abbas I, also managed to increase the glory of the empire. Abbas restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi'a Imam, Ali al-Ridha at Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at Ardabil. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas also moved the empire's capital to Isfahan, revived old ports, and established thriving trade with the Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction of Naqsh-e Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered 20 acres (81,000 m2), thus dwarfing Piazza San Marco and St. Peter's Square.[27]
[edit] Ottoman Empire
Main article: Ottoman Empire

The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century, especially after the Mongol invasion of Anatolia.[28] This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as beyliks. Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (Söğüt) in 1281, succeeding his father Ertuğrul. Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299, Osman I led it to a series of consecutive victories over the Byzantine Empire.[citation needed] By 1331, the Ottomans had captured Nicaea, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor, Orhan I.[29] Victory at the Battle of Kosovo against the Serbs in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were firmly established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a swiftly growing empire.[30]

Further growth was brought to a sudden halt, as Bayezid I had been captured by Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") in the Battle of Ankara in 1402, upon which a turbulent period known as the Ottoman Interregnum ensued. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of the territories recently conquered by the Ottomans regained independent status, potential ruin for the Ottoman Empire became imminent. However, the empire quickly recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I, waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself the new Ottoman sultan in 1413.[8]

At around this time the naval fleet of the Ottomans developed considerably, such that they were able to challenge Venice, traditionally a naval power. Focus was also directed towards reconquering the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II (ruled 1444 — 1446; 1451 — 1481), the Ottomans felt strong enough to lay siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A decisive factor in this siege was the use of firearms and large cannons introduced by the Ottomans, against which the Byzantines were unable to compete. The Byzantine fortress finally succumbed to the Ottoman invasion in 1453, 54 days into the siege. Mehmed II, entering the city victorious, renamed it Istanbul. With its capital conceded to the Ottomans, the rest of the Byzantine Empire quickly disintegrated.[8] The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend heavily upon the exploitation of gunpowder.[31]
The Suleiman Mosque (Süleymaniye Camii) in Istanbul was built on the order of sultan Suleiman the Magnificent by the great Ottoman architect Sinan in 1557

In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia under the leadership of Shah Ismail I, upon the defeat of the ruling Turcoman federation Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan Selim I quickly sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories into the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Suleiman I (also known as Suleiman the Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had previously fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, with their empire rivalling the Ottomans'. Suleiman I also advanced deep into Hungary following the Battle of Mohács in 1526 — reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France against Charles V of the Roman Empire 10 years later. Suleiman I's rule (1520 — 1566) signified the height of the Ottoman Empire, after which it fell into a relative decline with the rapid industrialization of the European empires. [8][32]
[edit] Wahhabism
Main article: Wahhabism

During the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab (1703 – 1792) led a religious movement (Wahhabism) in Najd (central Arabia) that sought to purify Islam. Wahhab wanted to return Islam to what he thought were its original principles as taught by the as-salaf as-saliheen (the earliest converts to Islam) and rejected what he regarded as corruptions introduced by bid‘ah (religious innovation) and Shirk (polytheism). He allied himself with the House of Saud, which eventually triumphed over the Rashidis to control Central Arabia, and led several revolts against the Ottoman empire. Initial success (the conquest of Mecca and Medina) was followed by ignominious defeat, then a resurgence which culminated in the creation of Saudi Arabia.
[edit] The 20th century

The modern age brought radical technological and organizational changes to Europe and Islamic countries found themselves less modern when compared to many western nations. Europe's state-based government and rampant colonization allowed the West to dominate the globe economically and forced Islamic countries to question change.
[edit] Demise of the Ottoman Empire
Main article: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
See also: Ottoman Caliphate and Turkish War of Independence

By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman empire had declined due to internal conflict. Their decision to back Germany in World War I meant they shared the Central Powers' defeat in that war, which led directly to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of the Battle of Gallipoli; Mustapha Kemal, who became known to his people as Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." It was fundamentally Ataturk who is to credit for successfully renegotiating the treaty of Sevres (1920) which ended their involvement in the war and establishing the modern Republic of Turkey, which was officialy recognized by the Allies in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). Ataturk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that emphasized economic development and secularization. He effectively transformed Turkish culture to reflect European style laws and clothing, adopted Hindu-Arabic numerals, the Roman alphabet, separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated woman- even giving them the right to vote roughly contemporary with the same transformation in western law for the first time. [33] Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory located outside of Asia Minor were parceled out as European protectorates. Despite Allied promises to subject peoples of the former Ottoman Empire during the war for future independence in exchange for their assistance fighting the central Turkish powers in Asia Minor; to their dismay, old-fashioned European imperialism was put in to practice through this system of "protectorates" which was a mere smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the new ideas in the region: the British and the French. Such struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret intelligence agent T.E. Lawrence- later known as "Lawrence of Arabia."[34] Ottoman successor states include today's Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Lebanon, Montenegro, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, other Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the Black sea.[35]

Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria, and Turkey organized their governments with definable policies and sought to develop national pride amongst their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.

Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the new government brought out new religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as Wahabism which found its way into the Saudi royal family.
[edit] Partition of India
Main article: Partition of India

The partition of India refers to the creation in August 1947 of the two sovereign states of India and Pakistan. The two nations were formed out of the former British Raj, including treaty states, when Britain granted independence to the area (see Undivided India). In particular, the term refers to the partition of Bengal and Punjab, the two main provinces of what would be Pakistan.

In 1947, after the partition of India, Pakistan became the largest Islamic Country in the world (by population) and the tenth largest post-WWII state in the modern world. In 1971, after a bloody war of independence the Bengal part of Pakistan became an independent state called Bangladesh.

Today, Pakistan is the second largest Islamic country in the world following Indonesia. Pakistan is presently the only nuclear power of the Muslim world.
[edit] Arab-Israeli conflict
Main article: Arab-Israeli conflict

The Arab-Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern State of Israel as a Jewish nation state, the consequent displacement of the Palestinian people, as well as the adverse relationship between the Arab nations and the state of Israel (see related Israeli-Palestinian conflict). Despite initially involving the Arab states, animosity has developed between other Muslim nations and Israel. Many countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with Islam, Arab culture, Christianity, Judaism, Jewish culture or for ideological, human rights, or strategic reasons. While some consider the Arab-Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider clash of civilizations between the Western World and the Arab or Muslim world,[36][37] others oppose this view.[38] Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world.
[edit] Oil wealth

Between 1953 and 1964, King Saud re-organized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn Saud, had created. Saudi Arabia's new ministries included Communication (1953) Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He also put Talal, one of his many younger brothers (by 29 years his younger) in charge of the Ministry of Transport.

In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed it, it would have been a consultative body, not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the king when the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud simply forwarded the proposal to the ulama asking them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea seems to have died in committee, so to speak. It would be revived more than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.

Meantime, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries came into existence in 1960. For the first decade or more of its existence, it was ineffectual in terms of increasing revenue for member nations. But it would have its day. Tension between Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a final showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard against Saud. It was Saud who blinked, abdicating and leaving for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969. Faisal then became King.

The 1967 war had other effects. It effectively closed the Suez canal, it may have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put Muammar al-Gaddafi in power, and it led in May 1970 to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of petroleum in Libya, which is a conveniently short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe.

In 1970, it was Occidental Petroleum which constituted the first crack in the wall of oil company solidarity in dealing with the oil producing nations; specifically, in this case, with the demands for price increases from the new Qaddafi government.

In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the Yom Kippur War, got underway just as oil company executives were heading to Vienna, site of a planned meeting with OPEC leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands anyway, and the war strengthened the unity of their new demands.

The Arab defeats in the Six Day and 1973 Arab-Israeli wars triggered the 1973 oil crisis. In response to the emergency re-supply effort by the West that enabled Israel to defeat Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states," those that bordered Israel, in their struggle.

The centrality of petroleum, the Arab-Israeli Conflict and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.
[edit] Two Iranian revolutions

The Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution marked the beginning of the end of Iran's feudalistic society and led to the establishment of a parliament in Persia and restriction of the power of Shah (king). The first constitution of Iran was approved. But after the final victory of revolutionaries over Shah, the modernist and conservative blocks began to fight with each other. Then World War I took place and all of the combatants invaded Iran and weakened the government and threatened the independence of Iran. The system of constitutional monarchy created by the decree of Mozzafar al-Din Shah that was established in Persia as a result of the Revolution was weakened in 1925 with the dissolution of the Qajar dynasty and the ascension of Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.

In 1979 the Iranian Revolution (also called "The Islamic Revolution" ) transformed Iran from a constitutional monarchy, under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to a populist theocratic Islamic republic under the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shi`i Muslim cleric and marja. Following the Revolution, an Iranian referendum established the Islamic republic as a new government, and a new constitution was approved, electing Ruhollah Khomeini Supreme Leader of Iran. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought with each other, and ultimately Islamics captured power. At the same time, the U.S., USSR, and most of the Arab governments of the Middle East feared that their dominance in the region was challenged by the new Islamic ideology, so they encouraged and supported Saddam Hussein to invade Iran, which resulted in the Iran-Iraq war.
[edit] The 21st century
Islam in the world.(Green: Sunni, Red: Shia
[edit] Islam in Turkey
Main articles: Islam in Turkey and Secularism in Turkey

Since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, there has been a strong tradition of secularism in Turkey established and institutionalized by Atatürk's Reforms. Although the First Grand National Assembly of Turkey had rallied support from the population for the Independence War against the occupying forces on behalf of Islamic principles, Islam was gradually omitted from the public sphere after the Independence War. The principle of secularism was thus inserted in the Turkish Constitution as late as 1937. This legal action was assisted by stringent state policies against domestic Islamist groups and establishments to neutralize the strong appeal of Islam in Turkish society. Even though an overwhelming majority of the population, at least nominally, adheres to Islam in Turkey; the state, which was established with the Kemalist ideology has no official religion nor promotes any and it actively monitors the area between the religions using the Presidency of Religious Affairs. The Republic Protests were a series of peaceful mass rallies by Turkish secular citizens that took place in Turkey in 2007. The target of the first protest was the possible presidential candidacy of the Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, afraid that if elected President of Turkey Erdoğan would alter the Turkish secularist state [39]
[edit] Dynasties of Muslim Rulers

ENFORCEMENT OF SHARI’AH ACT. 1991

2009-10-22T20:55:00.000-07:00

[Gazette of Pakistan, Extraordinary, Part 1, 18th June, 1991]

The following Act of Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament) received the assent of the President on the 5th June, 1991. and is hereby published for general information:-

Whereas sovereignty over the entire Universe belongs to Almighty Allah alone, and authority to be exercised by the people of Pakistan through there chosen representatives with the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust.

And whereas the Objectives Resolution has been incorporated in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan as a substantive part thereof ;

And whereas Islam has been declared to be the State religion of Pakistan and it is obligatory for all Muslims to follow the Injunctions of the Holy Qur’an and Sunnah to regulate and order there lives in complete submission to the Divine law;

And whereas it is one of the fundamental obligations of the Islamic State to protect the honour, life, liberty and the fundamental right a of the citizens as guaranteed under the constitution and to ensure peace and provide inexpensive and speedy justice to people through an independent Islamic system of justice without any discrimination.

And whereas Islam enjoins establishment of social order based on the Islamic values of bidding what is right and forbidding what is wrong (amr bil Ma’ roof wa nahi anil Munkar);

And whereas in order to achieve the aforesaid objectives and goals, it. is necessary to give to these measures constitutional and legal backing,

It is hereby enacted as follows :

1.
Short title, extent and commencement

(1)
This Act may be called the Enforcement of Shari’ah Act, 1991.
(2)
It extends to the whole of Pakistan.
(3)
It shall come into force at once.
(4)
Nothing contained in this Act shall affect the personal laws, religious freedom traditions, customs and way of life of the non Muslims.

2.
Definition.
In this Act "Shari’ah" means the Injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Holy Qur’an and Sunnah.

Explanation:-- While interpreting and explaining the Shari’ah the recognized principles of interpretation and explanation of the Holy Qur’an and Sunnah shall be followed and the expositions and opinions of recognized jurists of Islam belonging to prevalent Islamic schools of jurisprudence may be taken into consideration.

3.
Supremacy of Shari’ah.

(l)
The Shari’ah that is to say the Injunctions of Islam as laid in the Holy Qur’an and Sunnah, shall be the supreme law of Pakistan.
(2)
Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, the judgment of any Court or any other law for the time being in force, the present political system, including the Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament) and Provincial Assemblies and the existing system of Government, shall not be challenged in any Court, including Supreme Court, the Federal Shariat Court or any authority or tribunal:

Provided that nothing contained herein shall effect the right of the non-Muslims guaranteed by or under the Constitution.

4.
Laws to be interpreted in the light of Shari’ah.
For the purpose of this Act—

(a)
while interpreting the statute-law, if more than one interpretation is possible, the one consistent with the Islamic principles and jurisprudence shall be adopted by the Court ; and
(b)
where two or more interpretations are equally possible the interpretation which advances the Principles of Policy and Islamic provisions in the Constitution shall be adopted by the Court.

5.
Observance of Shari’ah by Muslim citizens.
All Muslim citizens of Pakistan shall observe Shari’ah and act accordingly and in this regard the Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament) shall formulate code of conduct for Government functionaries.

6.
Teaching of, and training in, Shari’ah etc.
The State shall make effective arrangements,--

(a)
for the teaching of, and training in the Shari’ah, Islamic jurisprudence and all other branches of Islamic law at appropriate levels of education and professional training.
(b)
to include courses on the Shari’ah in the syllabi of the law colleges ;
(c)
for the teaching of the Arabic language; and
(d)
to avail the services of persons duly qualified in Shari’ah, Islamic jurisprudence and Ifta in judicial system.

7.
Islamization of education.

(l)
The State shall take necessary steps to ensure that the educational system of Pakistan is based on Islamic values of learning, teaching and character building.
(2)
The Federal Government shall within thirty days from the commencement of this Act appoint a Commission consisting of educationists, jurists, experts, ulema and elected representatives as it may deem fit and appoint one of them to be its Chairman.
(3)
The functions of the Commission shall be to examine the educational system of Pakistan to achieve the objectives referred to in subsection (1) and make recommendations in this behalf.
(4)
A report containing the recommendations of the Commission shall be submitted to the Federal Government which shall cause it to be placed before both the Houses of Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament).
(5)
The Commission shall have the power to conduct its proceedings and regulate its procedure in all respects as it may deem fit.
(6)
All executive authorities, institutions and local authorities shall act in aid of the Commission.
(7)
The Ministry of Education in the Government of Pakistan shall be responsible for the administrative matters relating to the Commission.

8.
Islamization of economy.

(l)
The State shall take steps to ensure that the economic system of Pakistan is constructed on the basis of Islamic economic objectives, principles, and priorities.
(2)
The Federal Government shall, within thirty days from the commencement of this Act, appoint a Commission consisting of economists, bankers, jurists, ulema, elected representatives and such other persons as it may deem fit and appoint one of them to be its Chairman.
(3)
The functions of the commission shall be--

(a)
to recommend measures and steps, including suitable alternatives, by which the economic system enunciated by Islam could be established ;
(b)
to recommend the ways, means and strategy for such changes in the economic system of Pakistan so as to achieve the social and economic well being of the people as envisaged by Article 38 of the Constitution;
(c)
to undertake the examination of any fiscal law or any law relating to the levy and collection of taxes and fees or banking or insurance law or practice and procedure to determine whether or not these are repugnant to the Shari’ah and to make recommendations to bring such laws, practices and procedure in conformity with the Shari’ah and
(d)
to monitor progress in respect of the Islamization of economy, identifying lapses and bottlenecks, if any, and suggest alternatives to remove any difficulty.

(4)
The Commission shall oversee the process of elimination of Riba form every sphere of economic activity in the shortest possible time and also recommend such measures to the Government as would ensure the total elimination of Riba from the economy.
(5)
The Commission shall submit its reports on a regular basis and at suitable intervals to the Federal Government which shall place the same before both the Houses of Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament) and shall also respond to any queries sent to it by the Federal Government in respect of establishment of the Islamic economic order.
(6)
The Commission shall have the power to conduct its proceedings and regulate its procedure in all respects as it may deem fit.
(7)
All executive authorities, institutions and local authorities shall act in aid of the Commission.
(8)
The Ministry of Finance in the Government of Pakistan shall be responsible for the administrative matter relating to the Commission.

9.
Mass media to promote Islamic values.

(l)
The State shall take steps to promote Islamic values through the mass media.
(2)
The publication and promotion of programs against or in derogation to the Shari’ah, including obscene material shall be forbidden.

10.
Protection of life, liberty, property, etc.
In order to protect the life, honour, liberty, property and the rights of the citizens, the State shall take legislative and administrative measures to—

(a)
introduce administrative and police reforms;
(b)
prevent acts of terrorism and sabotage and disruptive activities; and
(c)
prevent the possession and display of illicit arms.

11.
Elimination of bribery and corruption.
The State shall take legislative and administrative measures, to eliminate bribery, corruption and malpractices and provide for exemplary punishment for such offences.

12.
Eradication of obscenity, vulgarity, etc.—Effective legal and administrative measures shall be taken by the State to eradicate obscenity, vulgarity and other moral vices.

13.
Eradication of social evils.
The State shall take effective measures for enactment of law eradicating social evils and promoting Islamic virtues on the principles of amr bil ma’roof wa nahi’ anil Munkar as laid down in the Holy Qur’an.

14.
Nizami-i-adl.
The State shall take adequate measures for the Islamization of the judicial system by eliminating laws delays, multiplicity of proceedings in different Courts, litigation expenses and ensuring the quest for truth by the Court.

15.
Bait-ul-Mal (Welfare Fund).
The State shall take steps to set up a Bait-ul-Mal for providing assistance to the poor, needy, helpless, handicapped, invalids, widows, orphans and the destitute.

16.
Protection of the ideology of Pakistan, etc.
The State shall enact laws to protect the ideology, solidarity and integrity of Pakistan as an Islamic State.

17.
Safeguard against false imputations, etc.
The State shall take legislative and administrative measures to protect the honour and reputation of the citizens against false imputations, character assassination and violation of privacy.

18.
International financial obligations, etc.
Notwithstanding anything contained in this act or any decision of any Court, till an alternative economic system is introduced, financial obligations incurred and contracts made between a National Institution and a Foreign Agency shall continue to remain and be valid, binding and operative.

Explanation:— In this section, the expression "National Institution" shall include the Federal Government or a Provincial Government, a statutory corporation, company, institution, body, enterprise or any person in Pakistan and the expression "Foreign Agency" shall include a foreign government, a foreign financial institution, foreign capital market, including a bank and any foreign lending agency, including an individual and a supplier of goods, and services.

19.
Fulfillment of existing obligations.
Nothing contained in this Act or any decision made thereunder shall affect the validity of any financial obligations incurred, including under any instruments, whether contractual or otherwise, promises to pay or any other financial commitments made by or on behalf of the Federal Government or a Provincial Government or a financial or statutory corporation or other institution to make payments envisaged therein, and all such obligations, promises and commitments shall be valid, binding and operative till an alternative economic system is evolved.

20.
Rights of women not to be affected.
Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, the rights of women as guaranteed by the Constitution shall not be affected.

21.
Laws to be enacted by Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament) and Provincial Assembly only.
Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act or the judgment or any Court, including the Supreme Court, all laws shall be enacted exclusively by the Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament) and the Provincial Assembly, as the case may be, and no law shall be made or be deemed to have been made unless it is made in the manner laid down in the Constitution.

22.
Rules.
The Federal Government may, by notification in the official gazette, make rules for carrying out the purposes of this Act.

Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (Amendment) Ordinance, 1998

2009-10-22T20:54:00.000-07:00

WHEREAS it is expedient further to amend the Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority Act, 1958 (W.P. Act XXXI of 1958), for the purposes hereinafter appearing;

AND WHEREAS the National Assembly is not in session and the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary to take immediate action;

NOW, THEREFORE, in exercise of the power conferred by clause (1) of Article 89 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, the President is pleased to make and promulgate the following ordinance:-

1.
Short title and commencement.-

(1)
This ordinance may be called the Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (Amendment) Ordinance, 1998.
(2)
It shall come into force at once.
(3)
The provisions of section 17A, inserted in the Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority Act, 1958 (W.P.Act XXXI of 1958), shall remain in force for a period of two years and on the expiration of the said period shall cease to be part of the said Act and shall stand repealed.

2.
Amendment of section 2, W.P. Act XXXI of 1958.-
In the Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority Act, 1958 (W.P.Act XXXI of 1958), hereinafter referred to as the said Act, in section 2, after clause (iii), the following new clause shall be inserted, namely:-

"(iiia)
"Deputy Chairman" means the Deputy Chairman of the Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority".

3.
Amendment of section 4. W.P.Act XXXI of 1958.-
In the said Act, in section 4,-

(a)
in sub-section (1) after the world "Chairman" the comma and words ",Deputy Chairman" shall be inserted;
(b)
in sub-section (2) after the word "Chairman" the words " and Deputy Chairman" shall be inserted;
(c)
in sub-section (3) after the word "Chairman" the comma and words ", Deputy Chairman" shall be inserted; and
(d)
in sub-section (4) after the word "Chairman" the comma and words ", Deputy Chairman" shall be inserted.

4.
Amendment of section 5, W.P.Act XXXI of 1958.-
In the said Act, in section 5, after the word "Chairman" the comma and words ", Deputy Chairman" shall be inserted.

5.
Amendment of section 6, W.P. Act XXXI of 1958.-
In the said Act, in section 6, after the word "Chairman' the comma and words ", Deputy Chairman" shall be inserted.

6.
Amendment of section 7, W.P.Act XXXI of 1958.-
In the said Act, in section 7, in sub-section (2), before the letter "a" occurring for the first time, the words "the Deputy Chairman or "shall be inserted.

7.
Amendment of section 17, W.P.Act XXXI of 1958.-
In the said Act, in section 17, for sub-section (1A), the following new sub-sections shall be substituted, namely:-

"(1A)
Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1A) or any law, settlement or award for the time being in force, or any rules or regulations framed under this Act, or any rules, regulations, orders or instructions issued by the Authority, or in the terms and conditions issued by the Authority, or in the terms and conditions of service of any person employed by, or serving under, the Authority, the Authority may, at any time,-

(a)
retire from its service any person without assigning any reason; or
(b)
remove from its service any person after informing him in writing of the grounds on which such action is proposed to be taken and giving him an opportunity of showing cause against the action within fourteen days.

(1AB)
Where a person is retired from service under sub- section (1A), he shall, in addition to the retiring benefits admissible to him under the terms and conditions of his service, if any, be paid pay for three months".

8.
Insertion of new section 17A, P.W.Act XXXI of 1958.-
In the said Act, after section 17, the following new section shall be inserted, namely:-

"17A
Certain laws not to apply to employment under the Authority.-
Nothing contained in the West Pakistan Industrial and Commercial Employment (Standing Orders) Ordinance, 1968 (W.P. Ordinance VI of 1968), or the Industrial Relations Ordinance, 1969 (XXIII of 1969), shall apply to, or in relation to, the Authority or any of the officers or employees appointed by it."

9.
Amendment of section 19, W.P. Act, XXXI of 1958.-
In the said Act, in section 19, after the word "chairman" occurring twice, the comma and words", Deputy Chairman" shall be inserted.

10.
Amendment of section 20, W.P. Act XXXI of 1958.-
In the said Act, in section 20, after the word "Chairman" the comma and words", Deputy chairman" shall be inserted.

Muhammad Rafiq Tarar

President

Offences in Respect of Electricity (Emergency Provisions) Ordinance, 1998

2009-10-22T20:51:00.001-07:00

WHEREAS the menace of stealing of electricity is rampant necessitating calling upon the Armed Forces of Pakistan to act in aid of civil power to suppress the said menace and to provide for speedy trial of offences relating to stealing of electricity and matters connected therewith;

AND WHEREAS the National Assembly is not in session and the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary to take immediate action;

NOW, THEREFORE, in exercise of the power conferred by clause (1) of Article 89 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, the President is pleased to make and promulgate the following Ordinance:-

1.
Short title, extent and commencement:-

(1)
This Ordinance may be called the Offences in respect of Electricity (Emergency Provisions) Ordinance, 1998.
(2)
It extends to such areas in which the Armed Forces are called upon to act in aid of civil power under Article 245 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan to combat the menace of stealing of electricity.
(3)
It shall come into force at once.

2.
Trial of offences:-
Whoever commits any offence punishable under section 39, section 39A or section 44 of the Electricity Act, 1910 (IX of 1910), shall be tried in accordance with the provisions of this Ordinance.

3.
Convening of courts. -
The person or authority empowered to convene a court martial under Chapter IX of the Pakistan Army Act, 1952 (XXXIX of 1952), may convene as many trial courts as may be necessary to try offences triable under this Ordinance including convening of courts of appeals to hear appeals against the decisions made and sentences passed by the trial courts.

4.
Jurisdiction. -
Where the person or authority competent to convene a court under section 3 is of the opinion that it will be conducive to achieve the objects for which the Armed Forces have been called in the aid of the civil power that a person accused of any of the offences specified in section 2 should be tried in accordance with the provisions of this Ordinance, it may convene a court for the trial of such person.

5.
Powers of the court.-

(1)
A trial court convened under section 3 shall, notwithstanding anything contained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898) (the Code ) or any other law for the time being in force, have the power to try any person who has committed any offence specified in section 2 in any area in which the Armed Forces are called upon to act in aid of civil power to combat the menace of stealing of electricity.
(2)
Subject to the provisions of this Ordinance and the rules made under it, for trial of the offences under this Ordinance, the procedure provided for in the Pakistan Army Act, 1952 (XXXIX of 1952), and, subject to the rules made under this Ordinance, the rules made under the said Act shall apply.

6.
Investigation. -

(1)
Subject to sub-section (2), the investigation of the offence specified in section 2, shall be conducted in accordance with the provisions of the Code.
(2)
Notwithstanding anything contained in section 50 of the Electricity Act, 1910 (IX of 1910), and officer of the Armed Forces acting in aid of civil power for the purpose of this Ordinance may initiate or take over investigation of any case and in conducting investigation such officer shall have and exercise the powers of an officer-in-charge of a police station under the Code.
(3)
Where the investigation of the case has been taken over or initiated under sub-section (2), no other agency including the police shall, except to the extent authorised by the officer of the Armed Forces, investigate such offence.

7.
Appeal:-

(1)
An appeal against the final judgment of the trial court shall lie to the court of appeals.
(2)
Copies of the judgment of the trial court shall be supplied free of cost to the accused and the person prosecuting on the day the judgment is pronounced.
(3)
An appeal under-sub-section (1) may be preferred by a person sentenced by a trial court within thirty days of the passing of the sentence.
(4)
The person prosecuting the accused may with the approval of the Chief of the Army Staff file an appeal against an order of acquittal or inadequacy of the sentence passed by a trial court within thirty days of such order.
(5)
The trial court and the courts of appeals shall decide the case with utmost speed.

8.
Finality of judgment. -
A judgment or order passed, or sentence awarded by a trial court shall, subject to the result of an appeal under this Ordinance, be final and shall not be called in question in any court.

9.
Offences to be cognizable and non-bailable.

(1)
The offences triable under this Ordinance shall be cognizable and non-cognizable.
(2)
The trial court and court of appeals shall not release any accused on bail.

10.
Indemnity -
NO suit, prosecution or other legal proceedings shall lie against any person in respect of anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done under this Ordinance.

11.
Ordinance to override other laws. -
The provisions of this Ordinance shall have effect notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force.

12.
Proceedings to be finalized under the Ordinance:-
Where a trial court has taken cognizance of a case under this Ordinance, the trial and appeal relating to such case shall be finalized in accordance with the provisions of this Ordinance notwithstanding that the direction calling upon the Armed Forces to act in aid of civil power to combat the menace of stealing of electricity has been withdrawn.

13.
Power to make rules

(1)
The Federal Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, make rules for carrying into effect the provisions of this Ordinance.
(2)
Without prejudice to the generality of the powers conferred by sub-section (1) such rules may provide for the procedure to be observed by the courts convened under this Ordinance.

Electricity (Amendment) Ordinance, 1998

2009-10-22T20:47:00.000-07:00

WHEREAS it is expedient further to amend the Electricity Act, 1910 (IX of 1910), for the purposes hereinafter appearing;

AND WHEREAS the National Assembly is not in session and the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary to take immediate action;

NOW, THEREFORE, in exercise of the power conferred by clause (I) of Article 89 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, the President is pleased to make and promulgate the following ordinance:-

1.
Short title and commencement.-

(1)
This Ordinance may be called the Electricity (Amendment) Ordinance, 1998.
(2)
It shall come into force at once.

2.
Amendment of sections 39 and 39A, Act IX of 1910. -
In the Electricity Act, 1910 (IX of 1910), hereinafter referred to as the said Act, in sections 39 and 39A, for the words "five thousand" the words "five million" shall be substituted.

3.
Amendment of section 44, Act IX of 1910.-
In the said Act, in section 44, in clause (c),-

(a)
for the words "five hundred" the words "five million" shall be substituted; and
(b)
for the word "fifty" the words "five thousand" shall be substituted.

4.
Addition of new section 50A, Act IX of 1910.-
In the said Act, after section 50, the following new section shall be inserted, namely:

"50A
Cognizance of offences, etc.-

(1)
No court inferior to that of a magistrate of the first class shall try an offence punishable under this Ordinance.
(2)
Notwithstanding anything contained in section 32 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898), it shall be lawful for any Magistrate of the first class to pass any sentence authorised by this Ordinance".

Muhammad Rafiq Tarar

President

Sales Tax (Second Amendment) Ordinance, 1998

2009-10-22T20:46:00.000-07:00

WHEREAS it is expedient further to amend the Sales Tax Act, 1990, for the purposes hereinafter appearing;

AND WHEREAS the National Assembly is not in session and the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary to take immediate action;

NOW THEREFORE in exercise of the powers conferred by clause (1) of Article 89 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, the President is pleased to make and promulgate the following ordinance:-

1.
Short title and commencement.-

(1)
This ordinance may be called the Sales Tax (Second Amendment) Ordinance, 1998,
(2)
It shall come into force on the first day of December, 1998.

2.
Amendment of Section 3, the Sales Tax Act, 1990.-
In the Sales Tax Act, 1990, hereinafter referred to as the said Act, in section 3;

(i)
in sub-section (1), for the words "twelve and a half" the word "fifteen" shall be substituted; and

(ii)
in sub-section (2), in clause (c), for the words "twelve and a half" the word "fifteen" shall be substituted.

3.
Amendment of section 8, the Sales Tax Act, 1990.-
In the said Act, in section 8, in sub-section (4), for the words, brackets, figures, comma and letters "clause (d) of sub-section (2) of section 3, section 3A and section 3AA" the word, "figure and letter" "section 3A" shall be substituted.

4.
Amendment of section 13, the Sales Tax Act, 1990.-
In the said Act, in section 13;-

(i)
sub-section (2) and (3) shall be omitted;
(ii)
in sub-section (4), the commas, words, brackets and figure" other fixed tax specified in clause (d) of sub-section (2) of that section," shall be omitted; and
(iii)
after sub-section (4), the following new sub-section shall be added, namely:-

"(5)
Notwithstanding the omission of sub-section (2), the Federal Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, rescind the whole or modify any part of a notification issued by it or by the Board under sub-section (2) prior to the first day of December, 1998."

5.
Amendment of section 34, the Sales Tax Act, 1990.-
In the said Act, in section 34, in sub-section (2), in clause (b), for the figure and letters "21st" the figure and letters "16th" shall be substituted.

Pakistan Armed Forces (Acting in Aid of the Civil Power) Ordinance, 1998 Ordinance XII of 1998

2009-10-22T20:45:00.000-07:00

13.
Ordinance to override other laws:
The provisions of this Ordinance shall have effect notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force.

14.
Power to amend the Schedule:
The Federal Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, amend the Schedule to this Ordinance so as to add any entry thereto or modify or omit any entry therein for or in the relation to offences having a nexus with the objects of this Ordinance.

Schedule

1.
Any offence punishable under this Ordinance.
2.
Offences punishable under Chapter XVI of the Pakistan Penal Code, 1860, except under sections 318 to 322, 326 to 328,337 to 337J, 337M too 338C.

(i)
if committed with a cannon, grenade, bomb, rocket or a light or heavy automatic weapons; or
(ii)
If the victim is a member of Police, Armed Forces or civil Armed Forces or is a public servant; or
(iii)
If there is more than one victim; or
(iv)
the victim was subjected to cruelty, brutality, torture, or burning.

3.
Offences punishable under sections 295A, 298A, 364, 364A, 365, 365A, 392 to 402 of the Pakistan Penal Code (Act No.V of 1860).
4.
An offence punishable under sub-section (4) of section 10 of the Offence of Zina (Enforcement of Hudood) Ordinance, 1979 (Order No.VI of 1979).
5.
Offences punishable under the Pakistan Arms Ordinance, 1965 (W.P. Ord.XX of 1965).
6.
Offences punishable under sections 7 and 9 of the Anti-terrorism Act, 1997 (XXVII of 1997).
7.
An attempt or conspiracy to commit or any abetment of any of the offences under this Ordinance or this Schedule.

Contempt of Court Ordinance, 1998

2009-10-22T20:44:00.000-07:00

WHEREAS clause (3) of Article 204 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan provides that the exercise of the power conferred on courts to punish for contempt may be regulated by laws:

AND WHEREAS the National Assembly is not in session and the president is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary to take immediate action;

NOW, THEREFORE, in exercise of the powers conferred by clause (1) of Article 89 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, the President is pleased to make and promulgate the following ordinance:-

1.
Short title and commencement.-

(1)
This Ordinance may be called the Contempt of Court Ordinance, 1998.
(2)
It extends to the whole of Pakistan.
(3)
It shall come into force at once.

2.
Definition.-
In this Ordinance,-

(a)
'Academic critique' means an article written by a lawyer or a person holding an academic post containing an analysis of a judgment on the basis of legal criteria or desiderata;
(b)
'Civil contempt' means the wilful flouting or disregard of -

(i)
an order, whether interim or final, a judgment or decree of a court;
(ii)
a writ or order issued by a court in the exercise of its constitutional jurisdiction;
(iii)
an undertaking given to, and recorded by, a court; (iv) the process of a court;

(c)
'Criminal contempt' means the doing of any act with intent to, or having the effect of, obstructing the administration of justice;
(d)
'Judicial contempt' means the scandalisation of a court and includes personalised criticism of a judge while holding office;
(e)
'Notice' means a notice other than a show-cause notice issued by a court;
(f)
'Pending proceedings' means proceedings which have been instituted in a court of law until finally decided after exhausting all appeals, revisions or reviews provided by law or until the period of limitation therefore has expired; provided that the pendency of an execution application shall not detract form the finality of the proceedings.
(g)
'Personalised criticism' means a criticism of a judge or a judgment in which improper motives are imputed; and
(h)
'Superior court' means the Supreme Court or a High Court.

3.
Jurisdiction.-

(1)
Every superior court shall have the power to punish a contempt committed in relation to it.
(2)
Subject to sub-section (3), every High Court shall have the power to punish a contempt committed in relation to any court subordinate to it.
(3)
No High Court shall proceed in cases in which an alleged contempt is punishable by a subordinate court under the Pakistan Penal Code (Act No. XLV of 1860).

4.
Punishment.-

(1)
Subject to sub-section(2), any person who commits contempt of court shall be punished with imprisonment which may extend to six months simple imprisonment, or with fine which may extend to one hundred thousand rupees, or with both.
(2)
A person accused of having committed contempt of court may, at any stage, submit an apology and the court, it satisfied that it is bona fide, may discharge him or remit his sentence. Explanation.- The fact that an accused person genuinely believes that he has not committed contempt and enters a defence shall not detract from the bona fides of an apology.
(3)
In the case of a contempt having been committed, or alleged to have been committed, by a company, the responsibility therefore shall extend to the persons in the company, directly or indirectly, responsible for the same, who shall also be liable to be punished accordingly.
(4)
Notwithstanding anything contained in any judgment, no court shall have the power to pass any order of punishment for or in relation to any act of contempt save and except in accordance with sub-section (1).

5.
Criminal contempt when committed.-

(1)
A criminal contempt shall be deemed to have been committed if a person-

(a)
attempts to influence a witness, or proposed witness, either by intimidation or improper inducement, not to give evidence, or not to tell the truth in any legal proceeding;
(b)
offers an improper inducement, or attempts to intimidate a judge, in order to secure a favorable verdict in any legal proceedings;
(c)
commits any other act with intent to divert the course of justice;

(2)
Nothing contained in sub-section (1) shall prejudice any other criminal proceedings which may be initiated against any such person as is mentioned therein.

6.
Cognisance of criminal contempt.-

(1)
In the case of a criminal contempt a superior court may take action;

(i)
suo motu, or
(ii)
on the initiative of any person connected with the proceedings in which the alleged contempt has been committed, or
(iii)
on the application of the law officer of a provincial or the federal government.

7.
Fair reporting.-

(1)
Subject to sub-section(2), the publication of a substantially accurate account of what has transpired in a court, or of legal proceedings, shall not constitute contempt of court.
(2)
The court may, for reasons to be recorded in writing, in the interest of justice, prohibit the publication of information pertaining to legal proceedings.

8.
Personalised criticism.-

(1)
Subject to the provisions of this Ordinance, personalised criticism of a specific judge, or judges, may constitute judicial contempt save and except if made in good faith and in temperate language in a complaint made:-

(a)
to the administrative superior of a judge of a subordinate court; or
(b)
to a provincial government; or
(c)
to the Chief Justice of a High Court; or
(d)
to the Supreme Court; or
(e)
to the Supreme Judicial Council; or
(f)
to the federal government for examination and being forwarded to the Supreme Judicial Council.

(2)
Nothing contained in sub-section (1) is intended to deprive a judge of the right to file a suit for defamation.

9.
Academic criticism.-
An academic critique of a judgment in a case of public importance shall not constitute contempt notwithstanding the fact that an appeal maybe pending if:-

(i)
it is phrased in temperate language;
(ii)
it is not made by or on behalf of a party, or by an advocate appearing in the case; and
(iii)
does not pertain to a pending criminal case,or disciplinary proceedings against a public servant, or a case involving disqualification of a member of the Majlis-e-Shoora (parliament) or a Provincial Assembly.

10.
Criticism of judgments.-
No criticism of a judgment in a case which has been finally decided and is no longer pending shall constitute contempt, no matter how far reaching or outspoken in nature it may be, if it is phrased in temperate language and does not impute improper motives to the judge.

11.
Judicial contempt.-

(1)
A superior court may only take action in a case of judicial contempt on its own initiative.
(2)
Subject to sub-section (1) any person may lay information relating to the commission of an alleged judicial contempt before a superior court, but such information shall not be registered as a case (although it may be placed in the case file) and nor shall any such person have the right of audience before the court.
(3)
Any person laying false information relating to the commission of an alleged judicial contempt shall himself be liable to be proceeded against for contempt of court.
(4)
Judicial contempt proceedings initiated by a judge, or relating to a judge, shall not be heard by the said judge, but shall (unless he is himself the Chief Justice) be referred to the Chief Justice, who may hear the same personally or refer it to some other judge, and, in a case in which the judge himself is the Chief Justice, shall be referred to the senior most judge available for disposal similarly.
(5)
No proceedings for judicial contempt shall be initiated after the expiry of one year.

12.
Civil contempt.-

(1)
Proceedings for civil contempt may be initiated suo motu or at the instance of an aggrieved party.
(2)
The provisions contained herein are intended to be in addition to, and not in derogation of, the power of the court under any other law for the time being in force to enforce compliance of its orders, judgments or decrees.

13.
Procedure in cases of contempt in the face of the court.-

(1)
In the case of a contempt committed in the face of the court, if the accused, persists in disorderly conduct, the court may direct that he leaves the court room, and, failing compliance, may further direct that he be physically removed from the court room.
(2)
In all cases of contempt in the face of the court, the judge shall pass an order in open court recording separately what was said or done by the accused person and what was observed by the judge and shall, if he is not the Chief Justice, refer the matter to the Chief Justice, and, if he is the Chief Justice, to the senior most available judge of a the court, who shall either hear and decide the matter himself or refer it to some other judge for disposal; Provided that it shall not be necessary for the matter to be so referred if the accused person requests in writing that it be decided by the judge before whom the contempt, or alleged contempt, was committed.
(3)
In the ensuing proceedings for contempt it shall not be necessary for the judge in whose presence the alleged contempt was committed to appear as a witness and the statement of events recorded by him under sub-section (2) may be treated as evidence; Provided that the judge hearing the case may seek further comments from the said judge, or make such further enquiry (including the calling of witnesses on his own motion) as he deems fit.

14.
Parliamentary speech.-
Nothing contained in this Ordinance or any other law is intended to stifle discussion in the Majlis-e-Shoora (parliament) or a Provincial Assembly on any matter of public importance without criticism of the conduct of a judge in the discharge of his duties.

15.
Expunged material.-
No material which has been expunged from the record under the orders of - (i) a court of competent jurisdiction; or (ii) the presiding officer of the Senate, the National Assembly or a Provincial Assembly, shall be admissible in evidence.

16.
Innocent publication.-
No person shall be guilty of contempt of court for making any statement, or publishing any material, pertaining to any matter which forms the subject of pending proceedings,if he was not aware of the pendency thereof.

17.
Protected statements.-
No proceedings for contempt of court shall lie in relation to the following:-

(i)
Observations made by a higher or appellate court in a judicial order or judgment;
(ii)
remarks made in an administrative capacity by any authority in the course of official business, including those in connection with a disciplinary inquiry or in an inspection note or a character roll or confidential report; and
(iii)
a true statement regarding the conduct of a judge in a matter not connected with the performance of his judicial functions.

18.
Amicus briefs.-

(1)
In any case pending in a superior court in which issues of public importance are involved, it shall be open to persons or organisations other than the parties to the litigation to file, with the permission of the court, amicus briefs confined to the legal issues arising in the case and the said briefs may contain such submissions as are legally relevant and do not contravene the provisions of this Ordinance.
(2)
Permission to file amicus briefs may be granted without notice subject to the condition that copies thereof shall be supplied to the parties to the case but the grant of such a permission shall not entitle the person or the organisation concerned to a right of audience, or appeal, and nor shall the court be bound to discuss such submissions in the judgment.
(3)
The provisions of this section shall not affect the power of the court to request an advocate to appear as amicus curiae.

19.
Procedure.-

(1)
Save as expressly provided to the contrary, proceedings in cases of contempt shall be commenced by the issuance of a notice, or a show-cause notice, at the discretion of the court.
(2)
In the case of a notice, the alleged contemner may enter appearance in person or through an advocate, and, in the case of a show-cause notice, shall appear personally; Provided that the court may at any time exempt the alleged contemner from appearing personally.
(3)
If, after giving the alleged contemner an opportunity of a preliminary hearing, the court is prima facie satisfied that the interest of justice so requires, it shall fix a date for framing a charge in open court and proceed to decide the matter either on that date, or on a subsequent date or dates, on the basis of affidavits, or after recording evidence; Provided that the alleged contemner shall not, if he so requests, be denied the right of cross examination in relation to any affidavit used in evidence against him.

20.
Substantial detriment.-

(1)
No person shall be found guilty of contempt of court, or punished accordingly, unless the court is satisfied that the contempt is one which is substantially detrimental to the administration of justice.

Explanation.- (1) A serious discussion of substantive issues of public importance without intent to influence a legal proceeding which may incidentally be pending will not constitute contempt of court.

(2)
In the event of a person being found not guilty of contempt by reason of sub-section (1), the court may pass an order deprecating the conduct, or actions, of the person accused of having committed contempt.
(3)
Notwithstanding anything contained in this Ordinance, truth shall be a valid defence in cases of contempt of court.

21.
Appeal.-

(1)
Orders passed by a superior court in cases of contempt shall be appealable in the following manner:-

(i)
In the case of an order passed by a single judge of a High Court, an intra-court appeal shall lie to a bench of two or more judges;
(ii)
in a case in which the original order has been passed by a division or large bench of a High Court, an appeal as of right shall lie to the Supreme Court; and
(iii)
in the case of an original order passed by a bench of the Supreme Court, an intra-court appeal shall lie to a larger bench of the court.

(2)
The appellate court may suspend the impugned order pending disposal of the appeal.
(3)
The period of filing an appeal shall be thirty days.

22.
Ordinance to be exhaustive.-
Save as, and to the extent expressly provided in this Ordinance, no act or statement of any person shall constitute contempt of court or be punishable therefor.

23.
Repeal.-
The Contempt of Court Act, 1976 (LXIV of 1976)

Eradication of Corrupt Business Practices Ordinance, 1998

2009-10-22T20:43:00.000-07:00

WHEREAS it is expedient to provide for the eradication of corrupt business practices;

AND WHEREAS the National Assembly is not in session and the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary to take immediate action;

NOW, THEREFORE, in exercise of the powers conferred by clause (1) of Article 89 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, the President is pleased to make and promulgate the following Ordinance:-

1.
Short title, commencement and extent:
(1) This ordinance may be called the Eradication of Corrupt Business Practices Ordinance, 1998.
(2) It shall come into force at once.
(3) It extends to the whole of Pakistan and shall apply also to acts committed at any place outside Pakistan.
2.
Definitions:-
In this Ordinance, unless the context otherwise requires:
(a) "company" means a company incorporated under any law relating to the incorporation of companies, and includes any foreign juridical entity;
(b) "contract" includes an understanding giving rise to any liability (pecuniary or otherwise), the grant of a right, lease, licence, concession, premium or conferment of any privileges:
(c) "Government" means the Federal Government, a Provincial Government, a local body and shall include any statutory body or any body in the public sector or a body established, controlled, managed or owned by the Government or in which the Government has a controlling share or interest;
(d) "indirectly" includes through any broker, associate, affiliate, sponsor, promoter, director or shareholder;
(e) "person" means a natural or juridical person; and
(f) "specified contract" means a contract of a value exceeding one hundred million rupees in relation to such industry or industries as may be specified in the schedule.
3.
Corrupt business practices:
A person is said to commit a corrupt business practice if he, directly or indirectly, gives, or agrees to give, a commission, gratification, bribe, finder's fee or kickback, whether described as consultation fee or otherwise, with the object of obtaining or modifying a contract, permission, sanction, licence or other benefit in whatsoever form from the government.

Explanation: A consultancy agreement entered into with a person in good faith and as a bona fide arms length transaction for the rendition of commercial services at market related rates and not intended as an indirect payment intended to circumvent the above provision, shall not be deemed to be a corrupt business practice provided that it is, if so required by the government, disclosed to it for purposes of ascertainment.

4.
Punishment for corrupt business practices:

(1)
Whoever commits a corrupt business practice shall be guilty of an offence punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to seven years, or with fine, or with both.
(2)
In the event of a corrupt business practice having been committed by a company, the chief executive, by whatever name designed, the country manager or incharge (if any) and every director or officer involved shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly unless he had no knowledge of, or involvement in the offence.

5.
Offence of strict liability:
The offence punishable under section 4 shall be one of strict liabilities and it shall not be a defence to the charge that the person giving, or agreeing to give, a commission, gratification, bribe, finder's fee or kickback, whether described as consultation fee or otherwise, with the object of obtaining or modifying a contract, permission, sanction, licence or other benefit in whatsoever form from the government was compelled, coerced, intimidated or induced to give or agree to give, the same.

6.
Contract obtained through corrupt business practice to be void:
Any contract obtained by any person from the government by resort to corrupt means shall, as against the government, be void and notwithstanding anything contained in any law or contract to the contrary, no court, tribunal, arbitrator or other forum, shall, as against the government, enforce or permit to be enforced, or acted upon, any such contract.

7.
Declaration not to commit corrupt business practice:

(1)
Any person entering into a specified contract with the government shall, on demand, furnish a declaration sworn on oath that he has not given, or agreed to give, and shall not give, any commission, gratification, bribe, finder's fee or kickback, whether described as consultation fee or otherwise, for obtaining or modifying any contract, permission, sanction, licence or other benefit in whatsoever form from the government.
(2)
Every specified contract entered into with the government shall include, and be deemed to include, a term that the person entering into a contract has, or will on demand, furnish a declaration under sub-section (1).

8.
Declaration in relation to existing contracts: (1) Every person who has entered into a specified contract with the government which has not yet been fully implemented shall, within seven days, or such further period as may be specified by the government, on service of a notice, furnish a declaration sworn on oath as to whether or not he has, directly or indirectly, given, or agreed to give, any commission, gratification, bribe, finder's fee or kickback, whether described as consultation fee or otherwise, to any person for obtaining or modifying the said contract.

Explanation:

(1)
A contract shall be deemed not to have been implemented in full if any obligations are subsisting thereunder and shall include cases in which contracts or modifications thereof, were obtained through promoters, sponsors, directors, share holders, affiliates, associates or brokers.

(2)
Where a company which is required to furnish a declaration fails to furnish it, the government shall stand absolved from all obligations under the contract with such person, without prejudice to its right to recover damages or compensation.

(3)
No criminal proceedings shall be initiated against a person making a true declaration, under sub-section (1) in relation to existing contracts, of any commission, gratification, bribe, finder's fee or kickback paid by him, directly or indirectly, for obtaining or modifying a contract, permission, sanction, licence or other benefit in whatsoever form from the government.

(4)
Notwithstanding the provisions of section 6, the government may, in the public interest, and for reasons to be recorded, agree to re-negotiate an existing contract.

9.
Declaration by companies:

(1)
Where the person obtaining a specified contract from the government, or required to file a declaration is a company, the declaration shall be furnished on oath by the chief executive of the company of a person duly authorized by the board of directors of the company in this behalf. In the case of a foreign company a confirmatory declaration shall, in addition, be made on oath by the person in charge of its operation in Pakistan (if any);

(2)
In the event of a false declaration having been given it shall not be a valid defence for the declarant to claim that he was personally unaware of the factual position.

10.
Punishment for false declaration:
Where a person furnishes a false declaration, he shall be guilty of an offence punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years, or fine, or both, and shall also be liable to pay an amount equivalent to the concealed amount to the government.

11.
Cognizance of offences:
No court shall take cognizance of an offence punishable under this Ordinance except on a complaint made by order of, or under authority of, the Federal Government or an officer empowered in this behalf by the said Government.

12.
Inquiry in relation to offences:

(1)
The Federal Government may appoint any government servant, or any other person who is an advocate of a High Court, or is a qualified chartered accountant within the meaning of the Chartered Accountants Ordinance, 1961 (X of 1961), or is a banker to carry out an enquiry in relation to any declaration made, or required to be made, under this Ordinance and such government servant or person shall have all the powers of a Civil Court, while trying a civil suit under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (Act No. V of 1908), in respect of the following matters, namely:

(a)
summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person and examining him on oath;
(b)
requiring the recovery and production of any documents whether within or outside Pakistan;
(c)
receiving evidence on affidavit; and
(d)
issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or documents.

(2)
Nothing contained in sub-section (1) is intended to, or shall have the effect of, restricting the powers of any police officer for or in relation to any offence committed under this Ordinance.

Ehtesab (Amendment) Ordinance, 1998

2009-10-22T20:42:00.001-07:00

AN ORDINANCE further to amend the Ehtesab Act, 1997

WHEREAS it is expedient further to amend the Ehtesab Act, 1997 (IX of 1997), for the purpose hereinafter appearing;

AND WHEREAS the National Assembly is not in session and the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary to take immediate action;

NOW, THEREFORE, in exercise of powers conferred by Clause (10 of Article 89 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, the President is pleased to make and promulgate the following Ordinance:

1.
Short title and commencement.

(1)
This ordinance may be called the Ehtesab (Amendment) Ordinance, 1998.
(2)
It shall come into force at once.

2.
Substitution of expression "Cell"
In the Ehtesab Act, 1997 (IX of 1997), hereinafter referred to as the said act, for the world "Cell", wherever occurring, the word "Bureau" shall be substituted, and any reference to the expression "Ehtesab Cell" in relation to any appointments made, or pending references, inquiries, investigations, directions or any other matter whatsoever shall be construed to be a reference to the "Ehtesab Bureau."

3.
Amendment of section 2, Act IX of 1997.
In the said Act, in section 2, in clause (a), for the words, brackets and figures "sub-section (1) of section 16" the words and figures "section 15" shall be substituted.

4.
Amendment of Section 3, Act IX of 1997.
In the said Act, in section 3, in sub-section (1), in clause (d), for the words "his spouse or dependents" the words "any other person" shall be substituted and shall be deemed always to have been so substituted.

5.
Amendment section 14, Act IX of 1997.
In the said Act, in section 14, for the word "shall" the word "may" shall be substituted.

6.
Amendment of section 15, Act IX of 1997.
In the said Act, in section 15,-

(i)
for sub-section (4) the following shall be substituted namely:-

"(4)
The reference made to the Ehtesab Bureau under sub -section (3) shall be deemed to be information under section 154 of the Code, and the responsibility for inquiring into or investigating an offence alleged to have been committed under this Act shall rest on the Ehtesab Bureau to the exclusion of any other agency or authority, and the said Bureau shall be required to examine all materials, evidence and proof".

(ii)
After sub-section (4) substituted as aforesaid, the following new sub-section shall be inserted, namely:-

"(4A)"
For the purpose of an inquiry and investigation under sub-section (4), the Chairman, members and such officers and servants of the Ehtesab Bureau as may be designated by the Chairman of the Ehtesab Bureau shall have and exercise all the powers of an officer-in-charge of a police station under the Code and for that purpose may cause the attendance of any person and may also require the assistance of any agency, police officer or other officials, and the agency or, as the case may be, the police officer or other officials whose assistance has been sought by the Bureau shall render such assistance: Provided that no person shall be arrested without the permission of the Chief Ehtesab Commissioner."

(iii)
for sub-section (6) the following shall be substituted, namely:-

"(6)
On the completion of the inquiry and investigation indicating that the matter requires to be referred to the Court it shall be the duty of the Ehtesab Bureau to communicate to the Chief Ehtesab Commissioner its appraisal of the material and evidence and where a reference is made by the Chief Ehtesab Commissioner to the Court the appraisal communicated by the Ehtesab Bureau to the Chief Ehtesab Commissioner shall be deemed to be a report under section 173 of the Code"; and

(iv)
After sub-section (7) the following new sub-section shall be added, namely:

"(8)
If at any time the Ehtesab Bureau is of the opinion that a case pending in any other court falls within the ambit of this Act it shall refer the matter to the Chief Ehtesab Commissioner who may apply to the court in which any such case is pending for a transfer of the said case and, if the application is granted the case shall stand transferred to the Court, and shall be continued, under the Act, and it shall not be necessary for the Court to recall and witness or once again record any evidence that may have been taken.
(9)
Save where a case is transferred to the Court under sub-section (8), any case pending in any other court at the commencement of this Act shall be tried before that court under and in accordance with the law under which it is being tried."

7.
Amendment of section 16, Act IX of 1997.
In the said Act, in section 16,-

(i)
sub-section (1) shall be omitted; and
(ii)
for sub-section (2), the following shall be substituted, namely

"(2)
The Chief Ehtesab Commissioner shall have the power, at any stage of the proceedings under this Act, to direct that the accused, if not already arrested, shall be arrested at the case referred to the Court for trial in accordance with law. The reference to Court by the Chief Ehtesab Commissioner shall contain the substance of the act of corruption and corrupt practices alleged to have been committed by the accused and a copy of such reference shall be forwarded to the Registrar of the Court having jurisdiction to try the accused, and another copy shall be given to the accused on demand."

8.
Amendment of section 18, Act IX of 1997.
In the said Act, in sub-section (2), after the word "by" the words "a Magistrate nominated by" shall be inserted.

9.
Amendment of section 26, Act IX of 1997.
The existing section 26 shall be numbered as sub-section (1) of that section and
after sub-section (1) numbered as aforesaid the following new sub-section shall be added, namely:-

(2)
The Chief Ehtesab Commissioner may prefer an appeal to the Supreme Court from an order acquitting the accused or passing a sentence lesser than the maximum sentence authorised by law, passed by the Court under this Act within thirty days of such order.

10.
Insertion of new sections 29A and 29B, Act IX of 1997.
In the said Act, the following new sections shall be inserted, namely:-

"29A.
Withdrawal from prosecution.- The special prosecutor may with the previous permission of the Chief Ehtesab Commissioner in writing, withdraw from the prosecution of any person either generally or in respect of any one or more offences for which he is being tried and upon such withdrawal-

(a)
if the withdrawal is made before the charge has been framed, the accused shall be discharged in respect of such offence; and
(b)
if the withdrawal is made after the charge has been framed, the accused shall be acquitted of such offence."

"29B.
Indemnity.- Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, no suit, prosecution, or legal proceedings shall be against any person for anything done, or intended to be done, in good faith under or in pursuance of this Act or any rules framed or order made under this Act".

11.
Amendment of section 31, Act IX of 1997.
In the said Act, in section 31, in sub-section (2), in clause (c), for the words "under this Act" the words "but before a Court constituted hereunder and as if the said Ordinance had not been repealed" shall be substituted and shall be deemed always to have been so substituted.

NATIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY BUREAU ORDINANCE

2009-10-22T20:39:00.000-07:00

No. XVIII of 1999
November 16, 1999
Amended by: ORDINANCE NO XIX OF 1999,ORDINANCE NO IV OF 2000

AN ORDINANCE to provide for the setting up of a National Accountability Bureau so as to eradicate corruption and corrupt practices and hold accountable all those persons accused of such practices and matters ancillary thereto;

WHEREAS it is expedient and necessary to provide for effective measures for the detection, investigation, prosecution and speedy disposal of cases involving corruption, corrupt practices, misuse/abuse of power, misappropriation of property, kickbacks, commissions and for matters connected and ancillary or incidental thereto;

AND WHEREAS there is an emergent need for the recovery of outstanding amounts from those persons who have committed default in the repayment of amounts to Banks, Financial Institutions, government and other agencies;

AND WHEREAS there is a grave and urgent need for the recovery of state money and other assets from those persons who have misappropriated or removed such assets through corruption, corrupt practices and misuse of power and/or authority;

AND WHEREAS it is necessary that a National Accountability Bureau be set up so as to achieve the above aims;

AND WHEREAS the National Assembly and the Senate stand suspended in pursuance of the Proclamation of the Fourteenth day of October 1999 and the Provisional Constitution Order No. 1 of 1999, as amended;

AND WHEREAS the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which renders it necessary to take immediate action;

NOW THEREFORE, in pursuance of the aforesaid Proclamation and Provisional Constitutional Order as well as Order No. 9 of 1999, and in exercise of all powers enabling him in that behalf, the President of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is pleased to make and promulgate the following Ordinance:-
1 Title
This Ordinance may be called the National Accountability Bureau Ordinance, 1999 (No XVIII of 1999).

2 Commencement
This Ordinance shall come into force at once and shall be deemed to have come into force from the 1st day of January 1985.

3 Ordinance to override other laws
The provisions of this Ordinance shall have effect notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force.

4 Application
It extends to the whole of Pakistan and shall apply to all persons in Pakistan, and persons who are or have been in the service of Pakistan wherever they may be, including areas which are part of Federally and Provincially Administered Tribal Areas.

5 Definitions
a "Accused" shall include a person in respect of whom there are reasonable grounds to believe, is or has been involved in the commission of any offence triable under this Ordinance and/or is subject of an investigation/inquiry by the National Accountability Bureau, or concerned Agency.

b "Appropriate Government" means in relation to any person serving in connection with the affairs of the Federation, including any person employed by a corporation, body, financial institution, bank, authority undertaking or any other organization set up, controlled or administered by or under the authority of the Federal Government or the Provincial Government concerned.

c "Assets" means any property owned, controlled by or belonging to any accused, whether directly or indirectly, or held benami in the name of his spouse or relatives or associates, whether within or outside Pakistan, for which they cannot reasonably account, or for which they cannot prove payment of full and lawful consideration.

d. "Associates" means:-
i. any individual who is or has been managing the affairs for or keeping accounts of the accused or who enjoys or has enjoyed any benefit from the assets referred to above.
ii. any association of persons, body of individuals, partnership firms or private limited companies within the meaning of Companies Ordinance 1984, of which such a person is or has been a member, partner or director or which have been promoted, floated, established or run by the same group of persons.
iii. any trustee of a Private Trust.
iv. any person who ostensibly holds or is in possession or custody of any property of an accused on his behalf for the benefit and enjoyment of the accused.

e. "Chairman National Accountability Bureau" means a person who is appointed as such by the President of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan as mentioned in Section 6 (b) hereafter.

f. "Code" means the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898.

fa. "Conciliation Committee" means the Conciliation Committee constituted under section 25A;

g. "Court" means an Accountability Court which shall consist of a Judge who shall be appointed by the President of Pakistan after consultation with the Chief Justice of Pakistan through notification in the official Gazette.

h. "Judge" means a person who has been a Judge of the High Court, is, or has been a District & Sessions Judge qualified to be a Judge of the High Court or any lawyer who is qualified to be a Judge of the High Court.

j. "Deputy Chairman" means the person appointed as Deputy Chairman of the National Accountability Bureau by the Chief Executive of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

k. "National Accountability Bureau" means the Bureau set up and notified under this Ordinance, (hereinafter known as NAB).

l. "Freezing" includes attachment, sealing, prohibition, holding, controlling and/or managing any property either through a Receiver or otherwise as may be directed by the Court or Chairman NAB, and in case it is deemed necessary the disposal thereof, by sale through auction or negotiation subject to confirmation by the Court or by Chairman National Accountability Bureau as the case may be after public notice.

m. "Holder of Public Office" means a person who :-
i. has been the President of Pakistan or the Governor of a Province.
ii. is, or has been the Prime Minister, Chairman Senate, Speaker of the National Assembly, Deputy Speaker National Assembly, Federal Minister, Minister of State, Attorney General and other Law Officer appointed under the Central Law Officers Ordinance, 1970 (VII of 1970), Advisor to the Prime Minister, Special Assistant to the Prime Minister, Federal Parliamentary Secretary, Member of Parliament, Auditor General, Political Secretary, Advisor or Consultant to the Prime Minister and holds or has held a post or office with the rank or status of a Federal Minister or Minister of State;
iii. is, or has been, the Chief Minister, Speaker Provincial Assembly, Deputy Speaker Provincial Assembly, Provincial Minister, Advisor to the Chief Minister, Special Assistant to the Chief Minister, Provincial Parliamentary Secretary, Member of the Provincial Assembly, Advocate General including Additional Advocate General and Assistant Advocate General, Political Secretary, Advisor or Consultant to the Chief Minister and who holds or has held a post or office with the rank or status of a Provincial Minister;
iv. is holding, or has held, an office or post in the service of Pakistan, or any service in connection with the affairs of the Federation, or of a Province, or of a local council constituted under any Federal or Provincial law relating to the constitution of local councils, or in the management of corporations, banks, financial institutions, firms, concerns, undertakings or any other institution or organization established, controlled or administered by or under the Federal Government or a Provincial Government, other than a person who is a member of any of the armed forces of Pakistan, or for the time being is subject to any law relating to any of the said forces, except a person who is, or has been a member of the said forces and is holding, or has held, a post or office in any public corporation, bank, financial institution, undertaking or other organization established, controlled or administered by or under the Federal Government or a Provincial Government;
v. is, or has been, the Chairman or Vice Chairman of a zila council, a municipal committee, a municipal corporation or a metropolitan corporation constituted under any Federal or Provincial law relating to local councils.

For the purpose of this sub-clause the expressions "Chairman" and "Vice Chairman" shall include "Mayor" and "Deputy Mayor" as the case may be, and the respective councilors therein.

vi. has served in and retired or resigned from or has been discharged or dismissed from the Armed Forces of Pakistan.

n. "Offence" means the offences of corruption and corrupt practices as defined in this Ordinance and includes those offences as specified in the Schedule to this Ordinance.

o. "PERSON" includes in the case of a corporate body, the sponsors, Chairman, Chief Executive, Managing Director, elected Directors, by whatever name called, and guarantors of the company or any one exercising direction or control of the affairs of such corporate body, but will not include employees appointed and designated as Director or Chief Executive; and in the case of any firm, partnership or sole proprietorship, the partners, proprietor or any person having interest in the said firm, partnership or proprietorship concern or direction or control thereof.

p. "Property" includes any or all movable and immovable properties situated within or outside Pakistan.

q. "Government Property" means both moveable & immovable properties belonging to the Government and includes gifts, donations, financial assistance, grants, aid received or collected in whatever name or for whatever purpose during the tenure of office.

r. "Wilful Default": a person is said to commit an offence of wilful default under this Ordinance if he does not pay or return or repay the amount to any bank, financial institution, cooperative society, or a Government department or a statutory body or an authority established or controlled by a Government on the date that it became due according to the laws, rules, regulations, instructions, issued or notified by a bank, including the State Bank of Pakistan, financial institution, cooperative society, Government Department, statutory body or an authority established or controlled by a Government, as the case may be, and a period of thirty days has expired thereafter:

Provided that it is not wilful default under this Ordinance if the accused was unable to pay, return or repay the amount as aforesaid on account of any wilful breach of agreement or obligation or failure to perform statutory duty on the part of any bank, financial institution, cooperative society or a Government department or a statutory body or an authority established or controlled by Government.

6. National Accountability Bureau
a. There shall be constituted a National Accountability Bureau for the whole of Pakistan.

b. Chairman National Accountability Bureau
i. There shall be a Chairman NAB to be appointed by the President.
ii. The Chairman NAB shall be appointed on such terms and conditions and shall have the status and privileges as may be determined by the President.
iii. The Chairman NAB may resign his office by writing under his hand addressed to the President.

c. Acting Chairman, National Accountability Bureau
As and when the Chairman NAB is absent or unable to perform the functions of his office due to any reason whatsoever, the Deputy Chairman will act as the Chairman NAB, and in case the Deputy Chairman is absent or unable to perform the functions of the office, any other person duly authorized by the Chairman NAB, to act as Chairman NAB.

7. Deputy Chairman, National Accountability Bureau
a. There shall be a Deputy Chairman NAB appointed by the President in consultation with the Chairman NAB. The Deputy Chairman shall assist the Chairman in the performance of his duties and carry out such functions as may be directed by the Chairman.

b. The Deputy Chairman shall serve at the pleasure of the President.

8. Prosecutor General Accountability.
a. The Chairman NAB may appoint any person to act as the Prosecutor General Accountability, notwithstanding any other appointment or office the latter may concurrently hold, upon such terms and conditions as may be determined by the Chairman.

b. The Prosecutor General shall give advice to the Chairman NAB upon such legal matters and perform such other duties of a legal character as may be referred or assigned to him by the Chairman NAB and in the performance of his duties, he shall have the right of audience in all Courts established under this Ordinance and all other Courts and Tribunals in Pakistan.

c. The Prosecutor General Accountability Bureau, in consultation with the Attorney General of Pakistan, may, with prior approval of the Chairman NAB, appoint Special Prosecutors to conduct prosecution of specific cases under this Ordinance, before any Accountability Court or any other Court or Tribunal.

9. Corruption and Corrupt Practices
a. A holder of a public office, or any other person, is said to commit or to have committed the offence of corruption and corrupt practices:-
i. If he accepts or obtains from any person or offers any gratification directly or indirectly, other than legal remuneration, as a motive or reward such as is specified in section 161 of the Pakistan Penal Code (Act XLV of 1860) for doing or for-bearing to do any official act, or for showing or forbearing to show, in the exercise of his official functions, favour or disfavour to any person, or for rendering or attempting to render any service or disservice to any person; or
ii. If he accepts or obtains or offers any valuable thing without consideration, or for a consideration which he knows to be inadequate, from any person whom he knows to have been, or likely to be, concerned in any proceeding or business transacted or about to be transacted by him, or having any connection with his official functions or from any person whom he knows to be interested in or related to the person so concerned; or
iii. If he dishonestly or fraudulently misappropriates or otherwise converts for his own use, or for the use of any other person, any property entrusted to him, or under his control, or willfully allows any other person so to do; or
iii. If he by corrupt, dishonest, or illegal means, obtains or seeks to obtain for himself, or for his spouse and/or dependents or any other person, any property, valuable thing, or pecuniary advantage; or
v. If he or any of his dependents or benamidars owns, possesses, or has any right or title in any movable or immovable property or pecuniary resources disproportionate to his known sources of income, which he cannot reasonably account for; or
vi. Misuses his authority so as to gain any benefit or favour for himself or any other person, or to render or attempt to do so;
vii. If he has issued any directive, policy, or any SRO (Statutory Regulatory Order) or any other order which grants or enables any concession or benefit in any taxation matter or law or otherwise so as to benefit himself or any relative or associate or a benamidar; or
vii. if he commits an offence of willful default.

b. All offences under this Order shall be non-bailable and, notwithstanding anything contained in sections 426, 491, 497, 498 and 561A or any other provision of the Code, or any other law for the time being in force no Court including the High Court shall have jurisdiction to grant bail to any person accused of any offence under this Order.

c. Where the Chairman NAB decides to release from custody or detention a holder of a public office or any other person accused of an offence under this Ordinance, he shall do so after considering the gravity of the charge against such person and where the accusation specifies any amount in respect of which the offence is alleged to have been committed, he shall not be released unless such amount is deposited with the NAB;

Provided that the Chairman NAB may impose other conditions for release from custody or detention.

d. The amount deposited by the accused with the NAB shall be transferred to the Federal Government or, as the case may be, a Provincial Government or the concerned bank or financial institution , etc, within one month of the date of such deposit.

10. Punishment for Corruption and Corrupt Practices
a. A person who commits the offence of corruption and corrupt practices shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 14 years, or with fine, or with both, and such of the assets and property of such person which is found to be disproportionate to the known sources of his income or which is acquired by money obtained through corruption and corrupt practices whether in his name or in the name of any of his dependents, or benamidars shall be liable to be forfeited to the appropriate Government.

b. Any person giving illegal gratification, or abetting, assisting or aiding a holder of a public office, or receiving or holding any property obtained or acquired by a holder of public office, through corruption or corrupt practices, or being a beneficiary of any asset, property or gain obtained through corruption or corrupt practices shall fall within the scope of this section and shall be liable to the same or a lesser punishment that may be awarded to a holder of a public office as may be deemed fit by the Court.

11. Imposition of Fine
Where a person found guilty of an offence is sentenced to pay a fine, irrespective of whether or not a sentence of imprisonment is imposed, the amount of the fine shall in no case be less than the gain derived by the accused or any relative or associate which may be set off against the forfeited or frozen assets and property.

12. Power to freeze property
a. The Chairman NAB or the Court trying a person for any offence as specified under this Ordinance, may, at any time, if there appear reasonable grounds for believing that the accused has committed such an offence, order the freezing of his property, movable or immovable, or part thereof, whether in his possession or in the possession of any relative, associate or person on his behalf;

b. If the property ordered to be frozen under sub-section (a) is a debt or other movable property, the freezing may be made:-
i. by seizure; or
ii. by appointment of receiver; or
iii. by prohibiting the delivery of such property to the accused or to anyone on his behalf; or
iv. by all or any of such or other methods as the Court or the Chairman NAB as the case may be, deem fit;

c. If the property ordered to be frozen is immovable, the freezing shall, in the case of land paying revenue, be made through the Collector of the district in which the land is situated, and in all other cases:-
i. by taking possession; or
ii. by appointment of receiver; or
iii. by prohibiting the payment of rent or delivery of property to the accused or to any other person on his behalf; or
iv. by all or any of such methods as the Chairman NAB or the Court may deem fit.

Provided that any Order of seizure, freezing, attachment or any prohibitory order mentioned above by the Chairman NAB, shall remain in force for a period not exceeding 30 days unless confirmed by the Accountability Court, where the Reference under this Order shall be sent by NAB.

Provided further that notwithstanding that the Order of NAB or the Court shall be effective from the time of passing thereof or proclamation thereof in a Newspaper, widely circulated and dispatch at the last known address of the accused.

d. If the property ordered to be frozen consists of livestock or is of a perishable nature, the Chairman NAB, OR the Court may, if it deems proper and expedient, order the immediate sale thereof and the proceeds of the sale may be deposited with the Chairman NAB or the Court, or as either may direct as appropriate.

e. The powers, duties, and liabilities of a Receiver, if any, appointed under this section shall be the same as those of a Receiver appointed under Order-XL of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (Act V of 1908).

f. That the Order of freezing etc. mentioned above in Section 12(a to e) shall, as the case may be, remain operative until final disposal by the Accountability Court or the Appellate Forum, notwithstanding filing of or pendency of an Appeal under this Order.

13. Claim or objection against freezing
a. Notwithstanding the provisions of any law for the time being in force, the Accountability Court shall have exclusive jurisdiction to entertain and adjudicate upon all claims or objections against the freezing of any property under section 12 above. Such claims or objections shall be made before the Accountability Court within 14 days from the date of the order freezing such property.

b. The Court may for sufficient cause extend the time for filing such claims or objections for a period not exceeding additional 14 days.

c. No appeal shall lie against an Order made under Section 12 of this Ordinance.

14. Presumption against accused accepting illegal gratification
a. Where in any trial of a scheduled offence punishable under this Order, it is proved that an accused person has accepted or obtained, or has agreed to accept or attempted to obtain, for himself or for any other person any gratification, other than legal remuneration, or any valuable thing, or any pecuniary advantage from a person or any agent of a person, for any favour shown or promised to be shown by the accused, it shall be presumed, unless the contrary is proved, that he accepted or obtained, or agreed to accept or attempted to obtain, that gratification or that valuable thing or pecuniary advantage for himself or some other person, as the case may be, as a motive or a reward such as is specified in section 161 to 163 of the Pakistan Penal Code (Act XLV of 1860), or, as the case may be, without consideration, or for a consideration which he believed to be inadequate;

b. Wherein any trial of an offence punishable under section 165A of the Pakistan Penal Code (Act XLV of 1860) it is proved that any gratification other than legal remuneration or any valuable thing has been given, or offered to be given, or attempted to be given, by any accused person, it shall be presumed, unless the contrary is proved, that he gave, or offered to give, or attempted to give, that gratification, or that valuable thing, as the case may be, as a motive or a reward such as is specified in section 161 to 163 of the said Code, or, as the case may be, without consideration or for a consideration which he believed to be inadequate.

c. In any trial of an offence punishable under this Order, the fact tha t the accused person or any other person on his behalf, is in possession, for which the accused person cannot satisfactorily account, of property or pecuniary resources disproportionate to his known sources of income, or that such person has, at or about the time of the commission of the offence with which he is charged, obtained an accretion to his pecuniary resources or property for which he cannot satisfactorily account, the Court shall presume, unless the contrary is proved, that the accused person is guilty of the offence of corruption and/or corrupt practices and his conviction therefore shall not be invalid by reason only that it is based solely on such a presumption.

d. Where a person is accused of an offence under section 9(a) (vi) and (vii), the burden of proof that he used his authority, or issued any directive, or authorised the issuance of any policy or statutory rule or order (SRO), or made any grant or allowed any concession, in the public interest, fairly, justly, and for the advancement of the purpose of the enactment under which the authority was used, directive or policy or rule or order was issued or grant was made or concession was allowed shall lie on him, and in the absence of such proof the accused shall be guilty of the offence, and his conviction shall not be invalid by the reason that it is based solely on such presumption.

15. Disqualification to contest elections or to hold public office
a. Where an accused person is convicted for the offence of corruption or corrupt practices as specified in the Schedule to this Ordinance, he shall stand disqualified for 21 years for seeking, or from being elected chosen appointed or nominated as a member or representative of any public office, or any statutory or local authority of the Government of Pakistan.

Provided that any accused person who has availed the benefit of sections 25 of this Ordinance shall also be deemed to have been convicted for an offence under this Ordinance, and shall stand disqualified for 21 years as above.

b. Any person convicted of an offence of corruption and/or corrupt practices as described at serial No. 1 of the Schedule shall not be allowed to apply for or be granted or allowed any financial facilities in the form of any loan or advances from any Bank or Financial Institution in the public sector, for a period of 10 years from the date of conviction.

16. Trial of Offences
a. Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, all persons accused of a scheduled offence, shall be prosecuted for such offence by Court established pursuant to this Ordinance exclusively as constituted under section 5 (g) and the case shall be heard from day to day and disposed of within 30 days.

b. The court shall sit at such place or places as the Government may, by order, specify in this behalf.

c. Where more courts than one have been established for an area , the Chief Justice of the High Court of the Province concerned shall, keeping in view the seniority and status of the Judges of various Courts, designate a Judge of any such Court to be an Administrative Judge.

d. Notwithstanding anything contained in this section, if in respect of any case relating to an offence triable under this Ordinance, the Chairman NAB, having regard to the facts and circumstances of the case may file a reference before any Accountability Court established anywhere in Pakistan, and such Court shall have the jurisdiction to try the same.

16A. Transfer of Cases
a. Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, the Chairman NAB may apply to any court of law or tribunal that any case involving a scheduled offence under this Ordinance pending before such court or tribunal shall be transferred to a Court established under this Ordinance, then such other Court or Tribunal shall transfer the said case to any Court established under this Ordinance and it shall not be necessary for the Court to recall any witness or again to record any evidence that may have been recorded.

b. In respect of any case pending before a Court established under this Ordinance, the Chairman NAB having regard to the facts and circumstances of the case and in the interest of justice and for the protection and safety of witnesses it is necessary that such case is transferred for trial may direct the Prosecutor General Accountability to apply for the transfer of the case from any such Court in one province to a court in another province or from one Court to a Court in another Province from one Court in a Province to another Court in the same Province, provided that:-
i. in case the transfer is intended from a Court in a Province to a court in another Province to the Chief Justice of Pakistan; and
ii. in case the transfer is intended from one Court in a Province to another Court in the same Province to the Chief Justice of the High Court;
and if the Chief Justice of Pakistan or, as the case may be, the Chief Justice of High Court considers it expedient in the interest of justice so to do, he may transfer the case from one Court to another Court and case so transferred shall be tried under this Ordinance without recalling any witness whose evidence may have been recorded.

17. Provision of the Code to apply
a. Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, unless there is anything inconsistent with the provisions of this Ordinance, the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1989), shall mutatis mutandis, apply to the proceedings under this Order.

b. Subject to sub section (a), the provisions of Chapter XXIIA of the Code shall apply to trials under this Ordinance.

c. Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (a) or sub- section (b) or in any law for the time being in force, the Accountability Court may, for reasons to be recorded, dispense with any provision of the Code and follow such procedure as it may deem fit in the circumstances of the case.

18. Cognizance of Offences
a. The Accountability Court shall not take cognizance of any offence under this Ordinance except on a reference made by or on behalf of the Chairman National Accountability Bureau.

b. A reference under this Order shall be initiated by the Chairman National Accountability Bureau on
i. a reference received from the appropriate government; or
ii. receipt of a complaint; or
iii. his own accord.

c. Where the Chairman National Accountability Bureau is of the opinion that it is or may be necessary and appropriate to initiate proceedings against any person on receipt of a reference or complaint or on his own accord, as the case may be, he shall refer the matter to the Deputy Chairman National Accountability Bureau or to any other officer for inquiry and investigation.

d. The responsibility for inquiry into and investigation of an offence alleged to have been committed under this Ordinance shall rest on the NAB to the exclusion of any other agency or authority, unless any such agency or authority is required to do so by the Chairman or/and Deputy Chairman NAB.

e. The Chairman NAB and such members, officers and/or servants of the NAB shall have and exercise, for the purposes of an inquiry and/or investigation the power to arrest any person, and all the powers of an officer-in-charge of a Police Station under the Code, and for that purpose may cause the attendance of any person, and when and if the assistance of any agency, police officer or any other official or agency, as the case may be, is sought by the NAB such official or agency shall render such assistance provided that no person shall be arrested without the permission of the Chairman or any officer duly authorized by the Chairman NAB.

f. Any Inquiry and Investigation under this Order shall be completed expeditiously but not exceeding a period of 75 days, or earlier as soon as may be practical and feasible.

g. The Chairman NAB, shall appraise the material and the evidence placed before him during the inquiry and the investigation, and if he decides that it would be proper and just to proceed further, he shall refer the matter to an Accountability Court.

h. If a complaint is inquired into and investigated by the NAB and it is concluded that the complaint received was prima facie frivolous or has been filed with intent to malign or defame any person, the Chairman or Deputy Chairman NAB or the prescribed law officer, may refer the matter to the Court, and if the complainant is found guilty he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to one year, or with fine or with both.

19. Power to call for information
The Chairman NAB or any authorized officer may, during the course of an inquiry or investigation in connection with contravention of any provision of this Ordinance:-
a. call for information from any person for the purpose of satisfying himself whether there has been any contravention of the provisions of this Ordinance or any rule or order made thereunder;

b. require any person to produce or deliver any document or thing useful or relevant to the inquiry or investigation;

c. examine any person acquainted with the facts and circumstances of the case; and

d. require any bank or financial institution, notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, to provide any information relating to any person whosoever.

20. Reporting of suspicious financial transactions
a. Notwithstanding anything contained in any law for the time being in force, it shall be the duty of all banks and financial institutions to take prompt and immediate notice of all unusual or large transactions with context to the account, which have no apparently genuine economic or lawful purpose and upon bonafide professional judgement of the Bank suspicion that such transactions could constitute or be related to illegal or illicit activities, corruption or corrupt practices, the manager or director of such financial institution shall report all such transactions to the Chairman NAB forthwith by the quickest possible mode of communication to be confirmed in writing.

b. Whoever fails to supply the information in accordance with subsection (a) shall be punishable with rigorous imprisonment which may extend to 5 years, or with fine, or with both.

c. Where there are reasonable grounds to believe that the assets of a person or any part thereof were acquired through corruption or corrupt practices, and there was no other likely source of acquiring such assets or part thereof, it shall be presumed, unless proved to the contrary by the accused person, that such assets or part thereof were acquired, generated or obtained through corruption and corrupt practices.

21. International Cooperation - Request for mutual legal assistance
The Chairman NAB or any officer authorized by the Federal Government may request a Foreign State to do the following acts in accordance with the law of such State:-
a. have evidence taken, or documents or other articles produced;

b. obtain and execute search warrants or other lawful instruments authorizing search for things relevant to investigation or proceedings in Pakistan believed to be located in that State, and if found, seize them;

c. freeze assets, by whatever processes are lawfully available in that State, to the extent to which the assets are believed on reasonable grounds to be situated in that State;

d. confiscate articles and forfeit assets to the extent to which the articles or assets, as the case may be, are believed to be located in that State;

e. transfer to Pakistan any such evidence, documents, things, articles, assets or proceeds realized from the disposal of such articles or assets; and

f. transfer in custody to Pakistan a person detained in the foreign State who consents to assist Pakistan in the relevant investigation or proceedings.

22. Jurisdiction
a. The Chairman NAB may inquire into and investigate any suspected offence which appears to him on reasonable grounds to involve serious offences as given in the Schedule to this Ordinance, and has been referred to him, or of his own accord.

b. The Chairman NAB may, if he thinks fit, conduct any such investigation in conjunction with any other agency or any other person which/who is, in the opinion of the Chairman NAB, a proper Agency or person to be concerned in it.

23. Transfer of property void
(a) Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force after the Chairman NAB has initiated investigation into the offences under this Ordinance, alleged to have been committed by an accused person, such person or any relative or associate of such person or any other person on his behalf, shall not transfer by any means whatsoever, create a charge on any movable or immovable property owned by him or in his possession, while the inquiry, investigation or proceedings are pending before the NAB or the Accountability Court; and any transfer of any right, title or interest or creation of a charge on such property shall be void.

(b) Any person who transfers, or creates a charge on property in contravention of subsection (a) shall be punishable with rigorous imprisonment for a term, which may extend to three years and shall also be liable to fine not exceeding the value of the property involved.

24.
a. The Chairman NAB shall have the power, at any stage of the investigation under this Ordinance, to direct that the accused, if not already arrested, shall be arrested.

b. If the Chairman, NAB decides to refer the case to a Court, such reference shall contain the substance of the offence/offences alleged to have been committed by the accused and a copy of such reference shall be forwarded to the Registrar of the Court to which the case has been sent to try the accused, and another copy shall be delivered to the accused.

c. The provisions of sub-section (a) shall also apply to cases, which have already been referred to the Court.

d. Notwithstanding anything contained in the code, where the holder of the public office or any other person accused of an offence is arrested by NAB under this Ordinance, NAB shall, as soon as may be, inform him of the grounds and substance on the basis of which he has been arrested and produce him before the court established under this Ordinance within a period of twenty four hours of arrest excluding the time necessary for the journey from the place of arrest to the court and such person shall, having regard to the facts and circumstances of the case, be liable to be detained in the custody of NAB for the purpose of inquiry and investigation for a period not exceeding ninety days provided that no accused arrested under this Ordinance shall be released without the written order of the Chairman NAB or the order of the Court.

e. All persons presently in custody shall immediately upon coming into force of this sub-section, unless previously produced before an Accountability Court, be produced before such court as provided in sub-section (d) and the Order authorizing retention of custody by NAB shall be deemed to relate to the date of arrest.

f. The Chairman, NAB may declare and notify any place as a police station or a sub-jail at his discretion.

25. Voluntary Return (Plea Bargaining)
(1) Where at any time whether before or after the commencement of trial the holder of a public office or any other person accused of any offence under this Ordinance, returns to the NAB the assets or gains acquired through corruption or corrupt practices;
(i) if the trial has not commenced, the Chairman NAB may release the accused; and
(ii) if the trial has commenced, the Court may, with the consent of the Chairman, release the accused.

(2) The amount deposited by the accused with the NAB shall be transferred to the Federal Government or, as the case may be, a Provincial Government or the concerned bank or financial institution, etc., within one month from the date of such deposit.

25A. Payment of Loans, etc
a. Where a person has been arrested or is in the custody of NAB on the charge that he is guilty of committing the offence of wilful default on account of non-payment of dues to a bank or financial institution or cooperative society, he may apply to the Chairman NAB for the reconciliation of his liability through Conciliation Committee and the Chairman NAB may refer the matter to a Conciliation Committee.

b. The Conciliation Committee shall consist of a nominee of NAB, who shall be the Chairman of the Commission, a nominee of the Prosecutor General NAB, an officer of the Banking Cell of NAB nominated by the Chairman NAB, a nominee of the Governor of the State Bank of Pakistan being a senior officer of the State Bank well qualified in the profession of banking, a Chartered Accountant appointed by the State Bank of Pakistan, a Chartered Accountant appointed by the accused who will represent him and a Chartered Accountant appointed by the lender.

Explanation: Where the lender is a consortium or group of banks or financial institutions, the lender means the lead bank or financial institution.

c. The Conciliation Committee after examining the record and accounts of the bank and the written evidence produced by the accused through his Chartered Accountant, if any, shall determine the amount outstanding against the accused calculated in accordance with law, circulars, rules and regulations of the State Bank of Pakistan and the manner and schedule of repayment. The accused, if he so desires, shall be heard at the commencement and before the conclusion of proceedings provided that the Chartered Accountant representing the accused shall have access to him for obtaining instructions during the proceedings of the Conciliation Committee.

d. The Conciliation Committee shall conclude the reference within thirty days and its recommendations shall be recorded by its Chairman and shall contain the views of all members of the Committee. The recommendations of the Conciliation Committee shall be submitted to the Chairman NAB.

e. The Chairman NAB shall consider the recommendations submitted to him under sub-section (d). The Chairman NAB may accept the recommendations or may, for reasons to be recorded, pass such appropriate order including rejecting or modifying the same as he may deem fit.

f. Where the accused undertakes to repay the amount as determined by the Conciliation Committee or the Chairman NAB, as the case may be, the Chairman NAB may release the accused for the purpose of this Ordinance.

g. Notwithstanding anything contained in this Ordinance or any other law for the time being in force, if the Chairman NAB is satisfied that any agreement entered into between a bank or a financial institution, a cooperative society and a lender is vitiated by the provisions of section 23 or any other provision of the Contract Act, 1872 (IX of 1872), or any other law or the same is collusive or is against public interest, he may refuse to take such agreement into consideration for the purposes of Conciliation Committee or the conclusion drawn by them.

h. In the event of failure either of the Conciliation Committee to conclude the reference within thirty days of the commencement of the conciliation proceedings or the failure of the accused to accept and implement the decision of the Chairman NAB regarding the payment and matters relating thereto, the case shall be proceeded with and referred to the Accountability Court.

26. Tender of pardon to accomplice/plea-bargaining
a. Notwithstanding anything contained in the Code, at any stage of investigation or inquiry, the Chairman may, with a view to obtaining the evidence of any person supposed to have been directly or indirectly concerned in or privy to any offence, tender a full or conditional pardon to such a person on condition of his making a full and true disclosure of the whole of the circumstances within his knowledge relating to the said offence including the names of the persons involved therein whether as principals or abettors or otherwise.

b. Every person accepting a tender of pardon under sub-section (a) shall be examined as a witness in the subsequent trial.

c. Subject to sub-section (d), the person to whom pardon has been granted under this section shall not -
i. in the case of a full pardon be tried for the offence in respect of which the pardon was granted; and
ii. in the case of a conditional pardon be awarded a punishment or penalty higher or other than that specified in the grant of pardon notwithstanding the punishment or penalty authorized by law.

d. Where the Chairman NAB certifies that in his opinion, any person who has accepted such tender has, either by willfully concealing anything essential or by giving false evidence through willful or reckless mis-statement, not complied with the condition on which the tender was made, such a person may be tried for the offence in respect of which the pardon was so tendered, or for any other offence of which he appears to have been guilty in connection with the said matter including the offence of giving false evidence, which he knows or ought to know is false.

e. Any statement made before the Chairman NAB or the Court by a person who has accepted a tender of pardon may be given in evidence against him at such trial.

27. Power to seek Assistance
The Chairman NAB shall have the power to seek full and complete assistance and call for all or any documents and information relevant to or in connection with any matter or proceeding pending before the NAB, from any Department of the Federal Government, Provincial Government, Local Authority, Bank, Financial Institution, person or any authority and institution or department in the public sector or the private sector, as he may deem it fit and proper to demand or require, provided that in any case in which a question of secrecy is involved or is raised at any time, the Chairman's decision shall be final.

28. Appointment of officers and staff in the National Accountability Bureau
a. The NAB may appoint such officers and staff as it may consider necessary for efficient performance of its functions and exercise of its powers under this Ordinance.

b. The officers and members of staff shall be appointed by the Chairman NAB or by a person authorized by the Chairman NAB.

c. The officers and members of staff shall be entitled to such salary, allowances and other terms and conditions of services as the Chairman NAB may, with the approval of the Chief Executive, determine.

d. Subject to sub-section (e), the provisions of the Civil Servants Act, 1973(LXXI of 1973) shall not apply to the persons appointed in NAB.

e. Nothing contained in sub-section (d) shall apply to a person who is a civil servant within the meaning of the law relating to appointments as civil servant of the Federation or a Province and is deputed to or posted in NAB.

29. Accused to be competent witness
Any person charged with an offence punishable under this Act shall be a competent witness for the defence and may give evidence on oath in disproof of the charges made against him.

Provided that the accused shall not be compelled to be a witness against himself:

Provided further that, where an accused person appears as a witness of his own choice and refuses to answer any question, the Court may draw such adverse inference from such refusal as it may think proper.

30. False evidence etc.
a. Notwithstanding anything contained in the preceding provisions or any other law already in force, on pronouncement of judgement, the Accountability Court shall have the jurisdiction and power to take cognizance of an offence committed in the course of the investigation or trial of a case by any officer, any witness, including an expert, who has tendered false evidence in the case, whether he deposed in court or not, or any other person, under sections 176 to 182 of Chapter X, or sections 191 to 204, or 211 to 223, or 225 -A of Chapter XI, of the Pakistan Penal Code (Act XLV of 1860), or under any other law relating to false evidence and offences against public justice, and to summarily try him and award punishment provided for the offence under the law.

b. For the purpose of trial under sub-section (a), the Court may, as nearly as may be, follow the procedure specified in Chapter XXII of the Code.

c. The proceeding under sub-section (a) may be initiated by the Court on its own accord at any time after the decision of the case or, in the event that there is an appeal, after the decision thereof, or on an application made by the Prosecutor or the person accused of an offence tried by the Court, within thirty days.

31. Prohibition to hamper investigation
a. Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, if any person concerned with the inquiry and investigation and prosecution of a case consciously and deliberately and with malice aforethought compromises, hampers, misleads, jeopardizes or defeats an investigation of a case under process before NAB or any concerned agency or authority or any Court or an Accountability Court, he shall be deemed to have committed the scheduled offence of corrupt practice and/or corruption.

b. No person will be proceeded with under this section except with the sanction of a Committee composing the Chairman NAB, Deputy Chairman NAB and the Prosecutor General Accountability.

31A. Absconding to avoid service of warrants
Whoever absconds in order to avoid being served with any process issued by any Court or any other authority or officer under this Ordinance or in any manner prevents, avoids or evades the service on himself of such process or conceals himself to screen himself from the proceedings or punishment under this Ordinance shall be guilty of an offence punishable with imprisonment which may extend to three years notwithstanding the provisions of section 87 and 88 of Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898, or any other law for the time being in force.

31B. Withdrawal from prosecution
Where at any stage of the proceedings, the Chairman NAB is of the opinion that ends of justice so require he may direct the Prosecutor General Accountability to withdraw from prosecution of any person under this Ordinance and upon such withdrawal the accused shall be released if not required in any other case under this Ordinance.

31C. No Court established under this Ordinance shall take cognizance of an offence against an officer or an employee of a bank or financial institution for writing off, waving, restructuring or refinancing any financial facility, interest or markup without prior approval of the State Bank of Pakistan.

32. Appeal
a. Any person convicted or the Prosecutor General Accountability, if so directed by NAB aggrieved by the Final Judgement and Order of the Court under this Ordinance may, within ten days of the final Judgement and Order of the Accountability Court prefer an Appeal to the High Court of the Province where the Court is situated.

b. All Appeals against the final Judgement filed before the High Court will be heard by a Bench of not less than two judges constituted by the Chief Justice of the High Court and shall be finally disposed off within thirty days of the filing of the Appeal.

c. Notwithstanding any other law for the time being in force or this Ordinance, no appeal against any interlocutory order of the Court during the proceedings pending before it under this Order, shall lie and an appeal shall lie only against the Final Judgement of the Court.

d. No stay of proceedings before the Court shall be granted by any Court on any ground whatsoever, nor proceedings thereof be suspended or stayed by any Court on any ground whatsoever.

33. Transfer of pending proceedings
Any and all proceedings pending before a court under the Ehtesab Act, 1997 (IX of 1997), shall stand transferred to an Accountability Court as soon as it is constituted under this Ordinance within the same Province, and it shall not be necessary to recall any witness or again to record any evidence that may have been recorded.

34. The President of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan in consultation with the Chief Justice of Pakistan may make Rules for carrying out the purposes of this Ordinance and the said Rules, shall on promulgation be a part of this Ordinance.

35. Repeal
a. The Ehtesab Act 1997 (Act IX of 1997) shall stand repealed from the date of promulgation of this Ordinance, provided that notwithstanding the Repeal of the said Act, any proceedings pending under Ordinance CXI of 1996, Ordinance No. XX of 1997 and the Ehtesab Act, 1997 before any Court established under the said Act of 1997 and/or any of the aforesaid Ordinances amending the same, shall, continue under this Ordinance as transferred under sub-section (b) of section 33 to an Accountability Court.

b. Any case or proceeding pending under the aforesaid Act of 1997 immediately before the commencement of this Ordinance and transferred to any court established under this Ordinance shall be proceeded with and all subsequent proceedings shall be completed in accordance with, and under the provisions of, this Ordinance.

36. Indemnity
No suit, prosecution, or any other proceedings shall lie against the Federal Government, Provincial Government, Chairman NAB, or any other member of the NAB or any person exercising any power or performing any function under this Ordinance or the Rules made hereunder for any act or thing which has been done in good faith or intended to be done under this Ordinance or the Rules thereof.

37. Removal of Difficulties Order.
The President may for the purpose of removing any difficulties in the enforcement of this Ordinance may make modifications, additions or omissions as may be deemed necessary or expedient for the interest of the State.

President to Hold Another Office Act, 2004

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Act No. VII of 2004
Gazette of Pakistan, Extraordinary, Islamabad, Part I, 2004, p177-178
November 30, 2004

An Act to enable the President of Pakistan to hold another office

WHEREAS paragraph (d) of clause (1) of Article 63 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan provides for holding another office of profit in the service of Pakistan if declared by law as such;

AND WHEREAS it is expedient to make declaratory provision enabling the President to hold another office of profit in the service of Pakistan;

It is hereby enacted as follows:-
1. Short title, extent and commencement
(1) This Act my be called the President to Hold Another Office Act, 2004

(2) It extends to the whole of Pakistan.

(3) It shall come into force on the 31st December, 2004.

2 Holder of another office
The holder of the office of the President of Pakistan may, in addition to his office, hold the office of the Chief of the Army Staff which is hereby declared not to disqualify its holder as provided under paragraph (d) of clause (1) of Article 63 read with proviso to paragraph (b) of clause (7) of Article 41 of the Consitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan or any other law for the time being in force or any judgement of any court or tribunal:

Provided that this provision shall be valid only for the present holder of the office of the President.

STATEMENT OF OBJECTS AND REASONS

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One of the avowed constitutional objectives of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is to enable Muslims to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accordance with the teachings and requirements of Islam as laid doom in the Holy Qur'an and Sunnah.

The Constitution, accordingly, mandates that all existing laws shall be brought in conformity with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Holy Qur'an and Sunnah.

The object of this Bill is to bring the laws relating to zina and qazf, in particular, in conformity with the stated objectives of The Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the constitutional mandate and in particular to provide relief and protection to women against misuse and abuse of law.

The offences of zina and qazf are mentioned in the Qur'an. The two ordinances relating to zina and qazf, however, make a number of other acts punishable in spite of the fact that the Qur'an and Sunnah neither define these offences nor has any punishment for there been prescribed. On no principle of qiyas can the punishments for zina and qazf or the procedure identified for their proof can be extended to these offences.

Any offence not mentioned in the Qur'an and Sunnah or for which punishment is not stated therein is Ta'zir which is a subject of State legislation. It is for the State both to define such offences and to fix punishments for these. The exercise of such authority by the State is in consonance with Islamic norms which the State is authorized to both define and punish. Accordingly, all these offences have been removed from the two Hudood Ordinances and inserted in their proper places in the Pakistan Penal Code, 1860 (Act XLV of 1860) hereinafter "PPC".

The offences listed in sections 11 to 16 of the Offence of Zina (Enforcement of Hudood) Ordinance, 1979 (VII of 1979) hereinafter "Zina Ordinance" are Ta'zir offences. All these are being inserted as sections 365B, 367A, 371A, 371B, 493A and 496A of the Pakistan Penal Code, 1860 (Act XLV of 1860). Sections 12 and 13 of the Offence of Qazf (Enforcement of Hadd) Ordinance, 1979 hereinafter 'Qazf Ordinance' are being omitted. This is being done as the definition of qazf in section 3 of that Ordinance is wide enough to cover the qazf committed by printing or engraving or sale of printed and engraved material.

No change is being made in the language of the statutory definition of any of these Ta'zir offences or the punishment provided for these, save one. The punishment of whipping is being deleted (or these Ta'zir offences. As the Qur'an and Sunnah do not provide for any punishment with regard to these offences the State is authorized to make this change in conformity with the Islamic concept of justice. This is in accordance with the scheme of the PPC and the evolving standards of decency which mark the progress of a maturing society.

The Zina and Qazf Ordinances have been a subject of trenchant criticism by citizens in general and scholars of Islam and women in particular. The criticisms are many. These include the lumping of the offence of zina with zina-bil-jabr (rape) and subjecting both to the same kind of proof and punishment. This has facilitated abuse. A woman who fails to prove rape is often prosecuted for zina. The requirement of proof for the maximum punishment of zina-bil-jabr (rape) being the same as that for zina, it has made absolutely impossible to prove the former.

Where a prosecution for rape against a man fails but sexual activity is confirmed by medical examination or on account of pregnancy or otherwise the woman is punished for zina not as Hadd - four eye witnesses not being available - but as Ta'zir. Her complaint is, at times, deemed a confession.

A penal statute must be clear and unambiguous. It must mark the boundaries between the permitted and the prohibited with clarity. The citizens are, thus, put to notice. They can order their life and conduct by following these bright guidelines and steer clear of trouble. The vague definitions in thane and related laws are, therefore, either being clarified and wherever that is not possible, omitted. The object is to protect the unwary and unsuspecting citizens from unwittingly falling foul of penal laws.

The Zina Ordinance also defines "marriage" as a valid marriage. In rural areas, in particular, nikahs generally and divorces particularly are not registered. It becomes difficult for a person charged with zina to establish "valid marriage" as a defence. Non-registration has its civil consequences. These are sufficient. failure to register a nikah or have a divorce confirmed should not entail penal consequences. This is in consonance with the Islamic norm that Hadd should not be imposed whenever there is any doubt about the commission of the offence. The misuse of the law in such cases has made it an instrument of oppression in the hands of vengeful former husbands and other members of society.

A triple talaq is pronounced. The woman returns to her parental home. She goes through her period of iddat. After a while the family arranges another match and she gets married. The husband then claims that sans the confirmation of divorce by the local authorities the marriage is not over and launches a zina prosecution. It is necessary to delete this definition to shut this door.

There is no hadd for the offence of zina-bil-jabr (rape). It is a Ta'zir offence. The definition and punishment of rape is, therefore, being incorporated in the PPC in sections 375 and 376 respectively. The gender neutral definition is being amended to clearly provide that rape IS an offence committed by a man against a woman. As consent of the woman is a defence to the charge of rape it is being provided that such consent would not be a defence if the woman is less than 16 years of age. This accords both with the need to protect the weak, which the Qur'an repeatedly emphasizes, and the norms of international legal obligations.

The punishment for gang rape is death. No lesser punishment is provided. The courts heating such cases have observed that in many situations they are of the opinion that a person cannot be acquitted while at the same time imposing the death penalty is not warranted in the fails and circumstances of the case. The result is that they feel obliged to acquit the accused in Stan cases. To address this concern, the lesser sentence of life imprisonment is being added as an alternative to the death penalty.

The procedure for the prosecution of Ta'zir offences of zina-bil-jabr (rape) and gang rape, like that for all other Ta'zir offences under the PPC, is to be regulated by the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898) hereinafter "Cr. P.C.".

Lian is a form of dissolution of marriage. A woman who is accused of adultery by her husband and denies the charge can seek dissolution of her marriage. Section 14 of the Qazf Ordinance refers to lian and also provides a procedure for it. A form of dissolution of marriage has no place in a penal statute. Accordingly, lian has been introduced as a ground for divorce under the Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939 (VIII of 1939).

The definition of zina and qazf remain the same as in the Zina and Qazf Ordinances. For both zina and qazf the same punishments have been retained, as well.

Zina is a heinous crime that corrupts public morals and destroys the sense of modesty. The Qur'an regards zina an offence against public morality. The requirement of four eyewitnesses is not solely an evidentiary burden of extra-ordinary weight. It is also an assertion that if contrary to the hadith, "Allah loves those who hide their sins", one commits an act in so blatant a fashion that four people see it, the harm to society must be serious indeed. At the same time, the Qur'an protects privacy, prohibits baseless assumptions and inquisition and forbids interference in the life of others. It is for this reason that a failure to prove zina entails punishment for qazf (false accusation of zina). The Qur'an requires the complainant to bring four eye-witnesses to prove the accusation of zina. The complainant and the witnesses must be conscious of the seriousness of this offence and must know that if they make a false accusation or cannot prove the charge beyond doubt they will be punished for qazf. The conviction will follow the failure of the zina prosecution and will not be contingent on the initiation of fresh legal proceedings.

The Zina Ordinance has been abused to persecute women, to settle vendettas and to deny basic human rights and fundamental freedoms. To check such abuse both in the case of zina and qazf the Cr. P.C. is being amended to provide that only the Court of Sessions, on a complaint, may take cognizance of such cases. The offence has been made bailable so that the accused do not languish in jail during trial. The police will have no authority to arrest any one in such cases unless so directed by the Court of Sessions and such directions cannot be issued except either to compel attendance in court or in the event of a conviction.

The primary object of all these amendments is to make zina and qazf punishable only in accordance with the Injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Holy Qur'an and Sunnah, to prevent exploitation, curb abuse of police powers and create a just and egalitarian society.